Italy has a history as diverse and intricate as its famous art and cuisine. From the ancient Etruscans and Romans to the dynamic city-states of the Renaissance and the modern Republic, Italy’s journey through time is a story of conquest, creativity, and unification. Join us as we traverse the major milestones in Italy’s history, highlighting the key events that have shaped this extraordinary nation.
Chronological History of Italy
Ancient Italy
- Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods (circa 850,000 – 2000 BCE)
- Early Human Inhabitants: Earliest evidence of human habitation in Italy dates back to approximately 850,000 years ago with stone tools and fossils found in sites like the Ceprano Man.
- Neolithic Revolution: Introduction of agriculture, pottery, and permanent settlements around 6000 BCE.
- Bronze Age (circa 2300 – 1200 BCE)
- Terramare Culture: Emerged in the Po Valley with distinct burial practices and fortified settlements.
- Apennine Culture: Noted for their distinctive pottery and transhumant pastoralism.
- Iron Age (circa 1200 – 700 BCE)
- Villanovan Culture: Early Iron Age culture known for their cremation urns and warrior aristocracy.
- Proto-Villanovan Culture: Preceded the Villanovan with similar but less complex social structures.
- Etruscan Civilization (circa 900 – 264 BCE)
- Formation and Expansion: Etruscan cities like Veii, Tarquinia, and Cerveteri thrived in central Italy, influencing Roman culture in art, religion, and architecture.
- Social Structure: Ruled by kings (Lucumones) and known for their confederation of city-states.
- Decline: Conquered by Rome by 264 BCE, their culture and knowledge significantly integrated into Roman society.
- Italic Tribes (circa 1000 – 300 BCE)
- Latins: Inhabited Latium and eventually founded Rome.
- Samnites: Dominated central Italy and fiercely resisted Roman expansion in the Samnite Wars.
- Umbrians and Sabines: Other significant tribes in the region, contributing to the cultural mosaic of pre-Roman Italy.
- Magna Graecia (circa 800 – 300 BCE)
- Greek Colonization: Southern Italy and Sicily were colonized by Greeks, establishing cities like Tarentum (Taranto), Neapolis (Naples), and Syracuse.
- Cultural Influence: Greek philosophy, art, and politics heavily influenced indigenous Italic cultures and later the Romans.
- Gauls and Celts (circa 400 – 200 BCE)
- Invasion and Settlement: Celtic tribes like the Insubres and Boii settled in Northern Italy, creating conflicts and alliances with other Italic tribes and Rome.
- Roman Republic (509 – 27 BCE)
- Foundation: Rome transitioned from a monarchy to a republic in 509 BCE.
- Conquest and Integration: Rome systematically conquered neighboring tribes and cities, including the Etruscans and Samnites, incorporating their territories and cultures into the Roman Republic.
- Conflicts: Major wars like the Samnite Wars and the Pyrrhic War marked Rome’s rise as the dominant power in Italy by 272 BCE.
Roman Empire
- Early Roman Empire (27 BCE – 14 CE)
- 27 BCE: Octavian becomes Augustus, marking the beginning of the Roman Empire.
- 25 BCE: Galatia peacefully integrated into the Roman Empire.
- 19 BCE: End of the Cantabrian Wars, Rome completes the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.
- 9 CE: Battle of Teutoburg Forest; Romans suffer a major defeat against Germanic tribes, halting further expansion into Germania.
- Julio-Claudian Dynasty (14 CE – 68 CE)
- 14 CE: Augustus dies, Tiberius becomes emperor.
- 37 CE: Caligula becomes emperor; known for his erratic and despotic rule.
- 41 CE: Claudius becomes emperor; conquers Britain in 43 CE.
- 54 CE: Nero becomes emperor; known for his artistic inclinations and tyrannical rule.
- 64 CE: Great Fire of Rome; Nero’s controversial response includes blaming Christians.
- Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian Dynasty (69 CE – 96 CE)
- 69 CE: Year of the Four Emperors – Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian vie for power.
- 70 CE: Vespasian’s son, Titus, destroys Jerusalem.
- 79 CE: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius buries Pompeii and Herculaneum.
- 81 CE: Domitian becomes emperor; reigns until his assassination in 96 CE.
- Nerva-Antonine Dynasty (96 CE – 192 CE)
- 98 CE: Trajan becomes emperor; expands the empire to its maximum territorial extent, including Dacia and parts of Parthia.
- 117 CE: Hadrian becomes emperor; known for consolidating and fortifying the empire, building Hadrian’s Wall in Britain.
- 138 CE: Antoninus Pius becomes emperor; a period of peace and prosperity.
- 161 CE: Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor; known for his philosophical writings and dealing with the Marcomannic Wars.
- 180 CE: Commodus becomes emperor; his reign is marked by instability and is often seen as the beginning of the empire’s decline.
- Crisis of the Third Century (192 CE – 284 CE)
- 192 CE: Commodus is assassinated, leading to a period of civil war known as the Year of the Five Emperors.
- 235 CE: Beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century; characterized by political instability, economic crisis, and external invasions.
- 270 CE: Aurelian restores stability, reconquers breakaway provinces like the Palmyrene Empire and the Gallic Empire.
- 284 CE: Diocletian becomes emperor; implements significant administrative and economic reforms, including the Tetrarchy to stabilize the empire.
- Late Roman Empire and Decline (285 CE – 476 CE)
- 285 CE: Diocletian divides the empire into Eastern and Western Roman Empires for better administration.
- 306 CE: Constantine the Great becomes emperor; known for the Edict of Milan (313 CE) which legalizes Christianity, and the founding of Constantinople.
- 378 CE: Battle of Adrianople; a significant defeat for the Romans against the Goths.
- 395 CE: Death of Theodosius I; final division of the Roman Empire into East and West.
- 410 CE: Sack of Rome by the Visigoths under Alaric.
- 476 CE: Fall of the Western Roman Empire; Romulus Augustulus, the last emperor, is deposed by Odoacer
Middle Ages
- 5th Century
- 476 CE: Fall of the Western Roman Empire. The last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, is deposed by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer, marking the start of the Middle Ages in Italy.
- 493 CE: The Ostrogothic Kingdom is established after Theodoric the Great defeats Odoacer. Theodoric rules Italy, maintaining a semblance of Roman traditions and administration.
- 6th Century
- 535-554 CE: The Gothic War between the Byzantine Empire and the Ostrogoths. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I aims to reconquer the Western Roman territories. Italy suffers extensive devastation during this conflict.
- 554 CE: The Byzantine Empire re-establishes control over Italy, incorporating it into the Exarchate of Ravenna. However, control is fragmented and weakened.
- 7th Century
- 568 CE: The Lombards invade Italy, establishing the Kingdom of the Lombards. They control large parts of the Italian peninsula, pushing the Byzantines to coastal enclaves and central regions.
- 569 CE: The Lombard King Alboin conquers most of northern and central Italy, except for areas under Byzantine control.
- 8th Century
- 751 CE: The Lombards capture Ravenna, ending the Exarchate. This marks the end of Byzantine dominance in northern Italy.
- 754-756 CE: The Donation of Pepin by Frankish King Pepin the Short, grants the Pope control over central Italy, establishing the Papal States.
- 9th Century
- 774 CE: Charlemagne, King of the Franks, conquers the Lombard Kingdom and is crowned “King of the Lombards,” integrating northern Italy into the Carolingian Empire.
- 800 CE: Charlemagne is crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III, reviving the concept of a Western Roman Empire, with a significant part of Italy under his control.
- 10th Century
- 888-962 CE: Italy is fragmented into numerous small states and principalities. The Carolingian Empire’s control wanes, leading to internal strife and external threats.
- 962 CE: Otto I of Germany is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope, establishing the Holy Roman Empire and bringing Italy into its fold, though control remains decentralized.
- 11th Century
- 1000-1050 CE: The fragmentation continues with various regions like Venice and the Papal States gaining more autonomy.
- 1029-1130 CE: The Norman Conquest begins in southern Italy. Normans, led by Robert Guiscard and his family, gradually conquer the Lombard and Byzantine territories in southern Italy.
Renaissance
- 1300s: Proto-Renaissance begins
- Dante Alighieri writes “The Divine Comedy” (1320), blending medieval and early Renaissance elements.
- Giotto di Bondone, a pioneering artist, creates lifelike frescoes, laying the groundwork for Renaissance art.
- 1400s: The Early Renaissance flourishes
- Filippo Brunelleschi constructs the dome of Florence Cathedral (1436), revolutionizing architecture.
- Donatello sculpts the bronze “David” (1430s), reintroducing classical sculpture techniques.
- Sandro Botticelli paints “The Birth of Venus” (1480s), emphasizing classical mythology and human beauty.
- Late 1400s – Early 1500s: The High Renaissance peaks
- Leonardo da Vinci creates masterpieces like “The Last Supper” (1498) and “Mona Lisa” (1503-1506), merging art and science.
- Michelangelo Buonarroti sculpts “David” (1504) and paints the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508-1512), epitomizing Renaissance art.
- Raphael paints “The School of Athens” (1511), celebrating classical philosophy and Renaissance humanism.
- 1500s: Renaissance spreads and transforms
- Niccolò Machiavelli writes “The Prince” (1513), exploring political power and ethics.
- The Protestant Reformation (1517 onward) challenges the Catholic Church, influencing religious and political landscapes.
- Venice becomes a hub of art and commerce, producing artists like Titian, known for his vivid portraits and use of color.
- Mid to Late 1500s: The Renaissance’s influence wanes
- Giorgio Vasari writes “Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects” (1550), documenting Renaissance artists and shaping art history.
- The Council of Trent (1545-1563) initiates the Counter-Reformation, reinforcing Catholic doctrine and influencing art and architecture.
Post-Renaissance Italy to the Unification
- 16th-17th Centuries: Spanish Dominance
- Italy fragmented into various states under Spanish Habsburg influence.
- Decline of Italian city-states’ power; economic stagnation.
- 1713: Treaty of Utrecht
- End of the War of Spanish Succession.
- Italian territories divided among Austria, Spain, and Savoy.
- 18th Century: Enlightenment Ideas
- Enlightenment influences reforms in various Italian states.
- Economic and cultural revival in cities like Naples and Milan.
- 1796-1814: Napoleonic Era
- Napoleon invades Italy, topples old regimes.
- Establishes the Cisalpine Republic and Kingdom of Italy.
- Napoleon’s fall leads to restoration of pre-revolutionary states.
- 1815: Congress of Vienna
- Italy divided into Austrian, Bourbon, and papal territories.
- Northern Italy under Austrian control, Kingdom of Sardinia reconstituted.
- 1820s-1830s: Early Nationalist Movements
- Secret societies like the Carbonari push for unification.
- Revolts crushed, but ideas of nationalism spread.
- 1848-1849: Revolutions of 1848
- Widespread uprisings across Italian states.
- Brief establishment of Roman Republic; crushed by French forces.
- Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia defeated by Austria.
- 1852: Count Cavour’s Premiership
- Cavour becomes Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia.
- Modernizes the economy, builds alliances.
- 1859-1861: Wars of Independence
- Second Italian War of Independence against Austria, aided by France.
- Lombardy ceded to Piedmont-Sardinia.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi’s Expedition of the Thousand unites southern Italy.
- 1861: Kingdom of Italy Proclaimed
- Victor Emmanuel II becomes the first king of a united Italy.
- Only Venetia and the Papal States remain outside the new kingdom.
- 1866: Third War of Independence
- Italy allies with Prussia against Austria.
- Venetia annexed to Italy following Austria’s defeat.
- 1870: Capture of Rome
- French troops withdraw during Franco-Prussian War.
- Italian forces enter Rome; becomes the capital of Italy in 1871.
Early 20th Century and World War I (1900-1918)
- 1900: King Umberto I assassinated; Victor Emmanuel III becomes king.
- 1911: Italy invades and annexes Libya from the Ottoman Empire.
- 1915-1918: Italy participates in World War I on the side of the Allies, aiming to gain territory.
Interwar Period and Rise of Fascism (1919-1939)
- 1919: Treaty of Versailles grants Italy territories, but nationalist sentiment grows due to perceived lack of rewards.
- 1922: Benito Mussolini’s March on Rome leads to the establishment of a fascist dictatorship.
- 1929: Lateran Treaty signed between Italy and the Vatican, establishing Vatican City as an independent state.
World War II and Aftermath (1940-1949)
- 1940-1943: Italy allies with Nazi Germany and Japan in World War II.
- 1943: Mussolini is deposed; Italy signs armistice with Allies and switches sides.
- 1945: End of World War II; Italy becomes a republic following a 1946 referendum, abolishing the monarchy.
Postwar Recovery and Economic Miracle (1950-1969)
- 1950s-1960s: Italy experiences an economic boom, known as the “Italian Economic Miracle,” transforming from an agrarian society to an industrial powerhouse.
- 1957: Italy is a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC), later the European Union (EU).
Political Turmoil and Economic Challenges (1970-1999)
- 1970s-1980s: Years of Lead – a period marked by social conflict, terrorism, and political instability.
- 1992: Tangentopoli (Bribesville) scandal and Operation Clean Hands expose widespread corruption, leading to major political changes.
- 1999: Italy adopts the euro as its currency, becoming part of the Eurozone.
21st Century Developments (2000-Present)
- 2000s: Italy faces economic challenges, political instability, and issues related to immigration and demographic changes.
- 2008-2011: Global financial crisis impacts Italy severely, leading to austerity measures and economic reforms.
- 2016: Prime Minister Matteo Renzi resigns after losing a constitutional referendum.
- 2018: Populist parties gain power, leading to the formation of a coalition government.
- 2020: Italy is one of the hardest-hit countries in the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to strict lockdowns and a significant death toll.
- 2021: Mario Draghi, former President of the European Central Bank, becomes Prime Minister, focusing on economic recovery and reforms.
From its ancient roots to its pivotal role in the Renaissance and beyond, Italy has continually reinvented itself while maintaining its unique identity. Today, as a modern republic and a cornerstone of the European Union, Italy remains a vibrant testament to the enduring power of its historical legacy.
