Chinese mythology is an extensive collection of stories, legends, and folklore that has been shaped over thousands of years. This diverse and rich heritage is not merely a repository of narratives but a profound reflection of Chinese civilization’s philosophical, religious, and societal values. To explore Chinese mythology is to delve into the essence of what it means to be Chinese, understanding the symbolic language that has shaped the collective consciousness of over a billion people.
Origins and Evolution
Chinese mythology has no single source or definitive text. Unlike Greek mythology, which is often referenced through works like Homer’s “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” Chinese mythology is a composite of regional myths that have evolved over millennia. The primary sources of these myths are ancient texts such as the “Shan Hai Jing” (Classic of Mountains and Seas), the “Huainanzi,” and later compilations like the “Fengshen Yanyi” (The Investiture of the Gods) and “Journey to the West.”
The “Shan Hai Jing,” dating back to the Warring States period (475-221 BCE), is a compilation of mythic geography and accounts of strange creatures and deities. The “Huainanzi,” compiled around 139 BCE, is a philosophical text that includes cosmological myths and discussions on natural phenomena. These texts, among others, illustrate the rich and varied nature of Chinese mythology, encompassing themes from cosmology to morality.
Ancient Sources and Their Impact: The “Shan Hai Jing” contains descriptions of over 550 mountains, 300 rivers, and countless mythological creatures, showcasing the geographical and cultural diversity of ancient China. The “Huainanzi,” attributed to Liu An, a prince of the Han dynasty, combines Daoist, Confucian, and Legalist philosophies, reflecting the syncretic nature of Chinese thought.
Cosmology and Creation Myths
At the heart of Chinese mythology lies a sophisticated cosmology. The universe’s creation is often attributed to the primordial giant Pangu, who emerged from a cosmic egg and separated the sky from the earth. According to the myth, Pangu’s body parts transformed into various elements of the natural world: his eyes became the sun and moon, his blood rivers, and his breath the wind.
Pangu: The myth of Pangu is detailed in texts such as the “Sanwu Liji” (三五历纪) and the “Xu Zheng” (许慎). According to the legend, Pangu’s body transformed into natural elements after his death: his left eye became the sun, his right eye the moon, his breath the wind, his voice thunder, and his limbs the four quarters of the earth. This myth emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things and the cyclical nature of life and death.
Nüwa: Another significant creation myth involves the goddess Nüwa, who molded humans from yellow earth. When a catastrophic flood wiped out humanity, Nüwa repaired the sky using five-colored stones and restored balance to the world. These myths underscore themes of balance, harmony, and the interconnectedness of all things—principles that are central to Daoist and Confucian thought.
Nüwa is often depicted with the body of a serpent or dragon, highlighting her connection to nature. The myth of her repairing the sky is found in texts such as the “Huainanzi” and the “Records of the Grand Historian” (史记, Shǐjì) by Sima Qian. The story of Nüwa also includes her creating humans from clay, with the wealthy being crafted carefully and the poor being formed by splashing mud, illustrating early notions of social hierarchy.
The Pantheon of Deities
Chinese mythology boasts a vast pantheon of gods, goddesses, and supernatural beings. The Jade Emperor, often considered the supreme deity, presides over the heavenly court. Below him are various deities responsible for different aspects of existence, from the Dragon Kings who control water and weather to the Kitchen God who oversees domestic affairs and reports on human conduct to the Jade Emperor.
The Jade Emperor: The Jade Emperor (玉皇大帝, Yù Huáng Dàdì) is a pivotal figure in Chinese mythology. He is considered the ruler of Heaven and all realms of existence below including that of Man and Hell, according to Taoist beliefs. His birthday is celebrated on the ninth day of the first lunar month, with offerings and ceremonies conducted in temples across China. The Jade Emperor’s court includes a complex hierarchy of gods, reflecting the bureaucratic structure of imperial China.
The Dragon Kings: The Dragon Kings (龙王, Lóng Wáng) are powerful deities who control water and weather. Each Dragon King rules over one of the Four Seas: the East Sea (East China Sea), South Sea (South China Sea), West Sea (Qinghai Lake), and North Sea (Lake Baikal). Their influence on agricultural societies dependent on favorable weather conditions underscores their importance in Chinese culture. Temples dedicated to the Dragon Kings are often found near bodies of water, where fishermen and farmers offer sacrifices for good fortune.
The Kitchen God: The Kitchen God (灶神, Zào Shén) plays a crucial role in domestic life. Believed to oversee the moral conduct of each household, the Kitchen God ascends to Heaven to deliver his annual report to the Jade Emperor just before the Lunar New Year. Families offer sticky rice cakes (nian gao) to ensure a favorable report by “sweetening” the god’s mouth. This tradition highlights the importance of family harmony and moral integrity in Chinese culture.
One of the most beloved figures in Chinese mythology is Guan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy. Known for her compassion and kindness, Guan Yin is venerated across China and in many parts of Asia. Her stories often highlight the virtues of empathy and altruism, resonating deeply with Buddhist ideals.
Guan Yin: Guan Yin (观音, Guān Yīn), also known as Avalokiteshvara, is a bodhisattva associated with compassion. Her full name, Guan Shi Yin, means “Observing the Sounds (or Cries) of the World.” She is often depicted as a serene figure, sometimes with a thousand arms and eyes, symbolizing her ability to see and help all those in need. Temples dedicated to Guan Yin, such as the Putuo Mountain in Zhejiang Province, attract millions of pilgrims annually.
Mazu: Another important deity is Mazu (妈祖), the Goddess of the Sea, worshipped by coastal communities for protection. Mazu, originally named Lin Moniang, is said to have saved her family from shipwreck through her spiritual powers. Her worship dates back to the Song Dynasty (960-1279) and has spread throughout Southeast Asia, reflecting the maritime history and cultural exchanges of the region.
Mythological Heroes and Epic Tales
Chinese mythology is rich with epic heroes and legendary figures whose tales have been passed down through generations. The story of the Monkey King, Sun Wukong, from the classic “Journey to the West,” is perhaps the most famous. Sun Wukong, born from a stone and possessing incredible powers, embarks on a journey of self-discovery and redemption, reflecting themes of personal growth and the quest for enlightenment.
Sun Wukong: Sun Wukong (孙悟空) is a central character in “Journey to the West,” written by Wu Cheng’en in the 16th century. Known for his rebellious spirit and superhuman strength, Sun Wukong’s adventures include battling demons, learning powerful spells, and seeking immortality. His iconic weapon, the Ruyi Jingu Bang, is a magical staff that can change size and obey his commands.
Journey to the West: “Journey to the West” (西遊記, Xī Yóu Jì) is one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Written during the Ming Dynasty, it details the journey of the monk Xuanzang to India to retrieve Buddhist scriptures, accompanied by Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie (Pigsy), and Sha Wujing (Sandy). The novel explores themes of redemption, loyalty, and the struggle between good and evil.
Hua Mulan: The legend of Hua Mulan, a courageous woman who disguises herself as a man to take her father’s place in the army, exemplifies the values of filial piety, bravery, and sacrifice. Mulan’s story, while romanticized and adapted in various forms, including Disney’s animated film, remains a powerful narrative about gender roles and the strength of familial duty.
The story of Hua Mulan (花木兰) dates back to the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589 CE) and is recorded in the “Ballad of Mulan.” Mulan serves in the army for twelve years, earning high merit and respect, yet declines any official position, returning home to care for her family. Her tale is celebrated in Chinese culture and has been subject to various adaptations, each highlighting her loyalty and bravery.
The Ballad of Mulan: The “Ballad of Mulan” (木兰辞, Mùlán Cí) is a narrative poem that has been adapted into numerous films, operas, and literary works. The original poem is short, consisting of 31 couplets, and emphasizes Mulan’s skills and dedication. Despite its brevity, the ballad has had a lasting impact, shaping perceptions of heroism and gender in Chinese culture.
Ne Zha: Another prominent hero is Ne Zha, a deity known for his rebellious nature and powerful abilities. The story of Ne Zha is detailed in the “Fengshen Yanyi,” where he is depicted as a young warrior who defies the Dragon King and ultimately sacrifices himself to protect his family and village. Ne Zha’s tale underscores themes of sacrifice, loyalty, and the struggle against tyranny.
Influence on Chinese Culture and Society
Chinese mythology profoundly influences Chinese culture, arts, and social values. Festivals such as the Lunar New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival are steeped in mythological significance. The Lunar New Year, for instance, is associated with the legend of Nian, a fearsome beast driven away by the color red and loud noises, hence the tradition of fireworks and red decorations.
Lunar New Year: The Lunar New Year, or Spring Festival (春节, Chūn Jié), is China’s most important traditional festival. The legend of Nian, a beast that terrorized villagers annually, is central to the celebration. To ward off Nian, people would hang red lanterns and set off fireworks. This myth underpins many customs, such as the wearing of red clothing and the giving of red envelopes (hongbao) containing money.
Mid-Autumn Festival: The Mid-Autumn Festival (中秋节, Zhōngqiū Jié) celebrates the moon and is associated with the legend of Chang’e, the Moon Goddess. Chang’e is said to have swallowed an immortality elixir and ascended to the moon. During the festival, families gather to admire the full moon, and eat mooncakes, a traditional pastry. The story of Chang’e reflects themes of love and longing, as she is eternally separated from her husband, Hou Yi.
Chang’e: The story of Chang’e and her husband, the archer Hou Yi, is detailed in various texts, including the “Classic of Mountains and Seas” and the “Records of the Grand Historian.” According to the myth, Hou Yi shot down nine of the ten suns that were scorching the earth, earning the elixir of immortality. Chang’e, however, consumed the elixir to prevent it from falling into the wrong hands, resulting in her ascent to the moon. This story is commemorated with mooncakes, symbolizing reunion and harmony.
In literature and performing arts, mythological themes are prevalent. Peking Opera and traditional Chinese paintings often depict scenes from legendary tales, while contemporary films and television series continue to draw inspiration from these ancient stories.
Peking Opera: Peking Opera (京剧, Jīngjù) often incorporates mythological themes and characters. Performances are characterized by elaborate costumes, expressive makeup, and stylized movements. Stories such as “The Heavenly Maid Scatters Flowers” and “The Monkey King” are perennial favorites, showcasing the deep connection between mythology and cultural expression.
Traditional Chinese Painting: Traditional Chinese paintings frequently depict scenes from mythology and folklore. Artists like Guo Xi and Shen Zhou have created works that illustrate legendary landscapes and mythological figures. These paintings are not just artistic expressions but also convey philosophical and moral lessons embedded in the myths.
Modern Interpretations and Global Impact
In modern times, Chinese mythology has transcended its cultural boundaries, gaining global recognition. Works of literature like “The Three-Body Problem” by Liu Cixin incorporate mythological elements, blending them with science fiction to create narratives that appeal to an international audience.
The Three-Body Problem: “The Three-Body Problem” (三体, Sān Tǐ), the first book in Liu Cixin’s sci-fi trilogy, references historical and mythological themes. The novel, which won the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2015, explores complex scientific concepts alongside Chinese cultural elements, demonstrating the enduring influence of mythology on contemporary storytelling.
Moreover, Chinese mythology’s themes and characters have found their way into global pop culture. Video games, graphic novels, and films frequently reference or adapt these ancient stories, showcasing their universal appeal and timeless relevance.
Video Games: Games such as “Age of Mythology” and “Smite” feature Chinese gods and mythological creatures, introducing these ancient stories to a global audience. Characters like Sun Wukong and Ne Zha are popular choices, reflecting the fascination with Chinese mythology.
Films and Television: Chinese mythology has inspired numerous films and television series, both within China and internationally. The 2019 Chinese animated film “Ne Zha,” based on the mythological figure, became the highest-grossing animated film in China, earning over $700 million worldwide. This film, among others, illustrates the modern retelling and reinterpretation of ancient myths for contemporary audiences.
In a Nutshell
Chinese mythology is a profound and intricate component of Chinese heritage. Its myths and legends, imbued with moral and philosophical lessons, offer insight into the human condition and the natural world. By exploring these stories, one gains a deeper understanding of Chinese culture, its values, and its worldview.
The enduring power of Chinese mythology lies in its ability to evolve and resonate through the ages, continually inspiring new generations while preserving the wisdom of the past. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the rich legacy of Chinese mythology offers a unique and invaluable perspective on the shared human experience.
Chinese mythology’s themes of harmony, balance, and the interconnectedness of all things remain relevant today, reminding us of our place in the universe and the timeless nature of human struggles and aspirations. Through its gods, heroes, and legends, Chinese mythology continues to be a source of inspiration and wisdom, reflecting the rich cultural heritage of one of the world’s oldest civilizations.
