Hittite Mythology

The Hittite civilization, which dominated the region of Anatolia between the 17th and 12th centuries BCE, stands as a remarkable testament to the cultural and religious syncretism of the ancient Near East. Positioned strategically between major powers such as Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Hittites were not only formidable warriors and shrewd diplomats but also devout practitioners of a richly diverse religious tradition. Their mythology, a blend of indigenous Anatolian beliefs and foreign influences, provides a window into the complex and dynamic society that the Hittites created.

The Hittite Pantheon

The Hittite pantheon is one of the most diverse in the ancient world, reflecting the civilization’s position as a cultural crossroads. The Hittites were influenced by the Hurrians, Luwians, Mesopotamians, and other neighboring cultures, leading to a pantheon that included a wide array of deities. This syncretism is evident in the inclusion of deities like the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar, who was worshipped as Shaushka in the Hittite kingdom. Ishtar, known for her association with love, war, and fertility, was integrated into the Hittite pantheon and worshipped alongside indigenous gods.

The Hurrian influence is particularly notable, with gods such as Teshub, the Hurrian storm god, becoming a central figure in Hittite religion. Teshub was often equated with the Hittite Storm God Tarhunt, illustrating how the Hittites adopted and adapted foreign deities to fit their own religious framework. This blending of gods from different cultures was not superficial but involved deep integration, with these deities playing significant roles in Hittite religious and political life.

Major Deities

• Tarhunt (Storm God): As the supreme deity, Tarhunt was central to Hittite religion and society. He was not only the god of storms and weather but also a symbol of the king’s divine authority. Tarhunt was believed to control the natural forces that were vital to agriculture, and his favor was essential for the prosperity of the kingdom. The Hittites often depicted Tarhunt in art as a powerful figure holding a lightning bolt, a symbol of his control over the elements. Tarhunt’s importance is further underscored by his presence in treaties and official documents, where he was invoked to ensure the sanctity of agreements.
• Sun Goddess of Arinna: The Sun Goddess of Arinna was another key deity in the Hittite pantheon. She was closely associated with the concept of justice and the legitimacy of the king’s rule. The Hittites believed that the Sun Goddess watched over the king, ensuring that he ruled fairly and justly. The city of Arinna, where her primary temple was located, was one of the most important religious centers in the Hittite kingdom. The Sun Goddess was also connected to the annual renewal of the land, and her worship was closely tied to agricultural cycles.
• Kubaba/Cybele: Kubaba was originally a local goddess in Anatolia, but she rose to prominence as a major deity in the Hittite pantheon. She was associated with fertility, motherhood, and protection, and her cult spread beyond Anatolia into neighboring regions. Kubaba’s worship was particularly popular among women, who sought her blessings for fertility and childbirth. Over time, Kubaba evolved into the Phrygian goddess Cybele, who would later become a significant figure in Roman religion. The transformation of Kubaba into Cybele reflects the fluidity of religious beliefs in the ancient world and the ability of deities to transcend cultural boundaries.
• Hepat: Hepat, a goddess of Hurrian origin, was incorporated into the Hittite pantheon as an earth goddess. She represented fertility, agriculture, and the natural world, playing a crucial role in ensuring the prosperity of the land. The Hittites depicted Hepat as a nurturing figure, often portrayed alongside her husband, Teshub, and their children. Her worship involved rituals aimed at ensuring bountiful harvests and protecting the land from natural disasters.

A distinctive feature of Hittite religion was the worship of multiple manifestations of a single deity. This practice allowed the Hittites to recognize different aspects or functions of a god, each of which was worshipped as a separate entity. For instance, the Hittite Weather God was worshipped in various forms, including the Weather God of Lightning, the Weather God of the Clouds, and the Weather God of the Palace. Each of these manifestations had its own specific rituals, temples, and iconography.

This practice reflects the Hittites’ nuanced understanding of the divine, recognizing that a single god could embody multiple, sometimes contradictory, aspects. It also allowed for a more personalized form of worship, where individuals or communities could focus on the specific aspect of a deity that was most relevant to their needs.

Major Myths and Stories

Illuyanka Myth

The Illuyanka myth is one of the most significant stories in Hittite mythology, illustrating the eternal struggle between order and chaos. The myth recounts the battle between the Storm God and the dragon Illuyanka, a creature that represents the forces of disorder. In the most common version of the myth, the Storm God is initially defeated by Illuyanka, but he later regains his strength and, with the help of his son, ultimately defeats the dragon.

This myth was likely recited or performed during religious festivals, particularly those related to the New Year or the agricultural cycle, reinforcing the community’s connection to the divine and the natural order. The story also served as a powerful symbol of the king’s role as the protector of order and justice, embodying the divine mandate to rule.

The Illuyanka myth has parallels in other ancient mythologies, such as the Babylonian story of Marduk and Tiamat and the Greek myth of Zeus and Typhon. These similarities suggest a shared cultural heritage in the ancient Near East, where the battle between a storm god and a dragon or serpent was a common motif representing the triumph of civilization over chaos.

Song of Ullikummi

The Song of Ullikummi is another central narrative in Hittite mythology, telling the story of a stone giant created by the god Kumarbi to challenge the Storm God. Kumarbi, who had been dethroned by the Storm God, sought to regain his power by creating Ullikummi, a giant made of diorite who grew to enormous size and threatened to overthrow the gods.

The myth explores themes of rebellion, divine power, and the ultimate triumph of order over chaos. Ullikummi’s growth represents the unchecked spread of chaos, while the Storm God’s eventual victory symbolizes the restoration of order. The story also reflects the Hittites’ concern with maintaining cosmic balance, as even the gods are shown to be subject to the forces of fate.

The Song of Ullikummi has clear parallels with other mythological stories, such as the Greek myth of the Titans and the Gigantomachy, where giants challenge the authority of the Olympian gods. These stories highlight the universal theme of the struggle between order and chaos, a concept that was central to the religious beliefs of many ancient cultures.

The Story of Appu

The Story of Appu, although less well-known than the Illuyanka myth or the Song of Ullikummi, offers valuable insights into Hittite morality and social values. The tale centers on a man named Appu, whose greed and desire for wealth lead to his eventual downfall. Appu’s actions anger the gods, who punish him by stripping him of his wealth and leaving him destitute.

This story serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of excessive desire and the importance of living in harmony with the gods. It reflects the Hittite belief that the gods were deeply involved in human affairs and that individuals who violated divine laws or upset the natural order would face severe consequences.

The Story of Appu also highlights the role of divine justice in Hittite society, where the gods were seen as the ultimate arbiters of right and wrong. The moral lessons embedded in this story were likely used to educate and guide the Hittite populace in ethical behavior, reinforcing the idea that prosperity and happiness could only be achieved through piety and respect for the divine.

Religious Practices and Rituals

Temple Worship

Temples were the focal points of Hittite religious life, serving as the homes of the gods on earth. These structures were often grand and intricately designed, reflecting the importance of religion in Hittite society. The temples were typically located in the center of cities, signifying their central role in both religious and civic life.

Daily offerings, including food, drink, and incense, were made to the deities, and the temples were the centers of major religious festivals that united the community in worship. The most important temple in the Hittite kingdom was the temple of the Storm God in Hattusa, the capital city. This temple was a massive complex that included multiple shrines, altars, and storage rooms for offerings.

The temple of the Sun Goddess in Arinna was another significant religious site. It was the location of the annual New Year festival, which marked the beginning of the agricultural cycle and was one of the most important events in the Hittite calendar. During this festival, the king, acting as the high priest, would lead the community in prayers and offerings to ensure the favor of the gods for the coming year.

Animal Sacrifice

Animal sacrifices were a cornerstone of Hittite religious practice, serving as a primary means of communication between the people and their gods. These sacrifices were meticulously performed, with each type of offering and ritual tailored to specific deities, occasions, and desired outcomes. For instance, bulls were often sacrificed to the Storm God Tarhunt, symbolizing strength and vitality, while sheep or goats might be offered to lesser deities or for more routine purposes.

The process of sacrifice was elaborate, involving a series of purification rites for both the priests and the sacrificial animals. The animals were usually ritually cleansed before being slaughtered, and the blood was often used in further rituals, such as anointing altars or sanctifying objects. The flesh of the animals was then divided, with portions offered to the gods, portions consumed by the priests, and portions distributed among the participants. This communal aspect of sacrifice reinforced social bonds and the shared religious experience.

Sacrifices were performed during major religious festivals, on the occasion of royal events, and in times of crisis, such as during a famine or before a military campaign. The Hittites believed that these offerings would appease the gods, ensuring their favor and protection. In times of war, sacrifices to the war gods were particularly significant, as the outcome of battles was thought to be directly influenced by the will of the deities. For example, before the Battle of Kadesh against Egypt, extensive rituals and sacrifices were likely performed to secure the favor of the gods.

Purification Rituals

Purification rituals were essential in Hittite religion, reflecting the belief that physical and spiritual cleanliness was necessary to maintain the favor of the gods. These rituals were conducted to cleanse individuals, places, or objects that were considered impure due to contact with death, disease, or other forms of ritual pollution.

One of the most common purification rituals involved the use of water, either in the form of baths or through sprinkling, to symbolically wash away impurities. In some cases, the water was mixed with other substances, such as salt or ash, to enhance its purifying properties. Fire was also used in purification rituals, particularly for cleansing objects. For example, tools or weapons used in sacrifices might be passed through fire to purify them before being dedicated to the gods.

The importance of these rituals is underscored by the extensive documentation of purification practices in Hittite religious texts. These texts provide detailed instructions on how to perform purification rites, including the specific prayers to be recited and the materials to be used. The meticulous nature of these rituals reflects the Hittite belief that even minor impurities could disrupt the relationship between humans and the divine, leading to misfortune or divine retribution.

Festivals and Processions

Religious festivals were among the most important events in the Hittite calendar, marked by elaborate ceremonies, feasting, and public processions. These festivals not only honored the gods but also played a crucial role in reinforcing social cohesion and the authority of the king.

One of the most significant festivals was the Puruli festival, which celebrated the victory of the Storm God over the dragon Illuyanka. This festival likely took place in the spring, symbolizing the renewal of life and the triumph of order over chaos. The Puruli festival included a reenactment of the Illuyanka myth, along with sacrifices, feasting, and communal celebrations.

Another major festival was the AN.TAH.ŠUM festival, which was dedicated to the Sun Goddess of Arinna and marked the beginning of the agricultural year. During this festival, the king would lead a procession to the temple of the Sun Goddess, where offerings were made to ensure a successful harvest. The festival also involved rituals aimed at securing the protection of the crops from natural disasters and ensuring the fertility of the land.

These festivals were public events that involved the entire community, from the king and priests to ordinary citizens. The participation of the whole society in these rituals underscores the collective nature of Hittite religion, where the well-being of the community was closely tied to the favor of the gods.

Divine Oracles

The Hittites placed great importance on oracles as a means of seeking divine guidance in both personal and state matters. Oracles were typically consulted before making major decisions, such as going to war, entering into treaties, or addressing natural disasters. The reliance on oracles reflects the Hittite belief that the gods were actively involved in human affairs and that their will could be discerned through specific rituals.

The process of consulting an oracle often involved a series of rituals, including the sacrifice of animals and the interpretation of their entrails, a practice known as haruspicy. The Hittites also used augury, interpreting the flight patterns of birds as signs from the gods. These methods of divination were carefully documented, with priests trained in the art of interpreting these signs to ensure that the correct decisions were made.

In addition to these methods, the Hittites sometimes used dream interpretation as a form of divination. Certain priests, known as dream interpreters, were believed to have the ability to understand the messages of the gods conveyed through dreams. The reliance on dreams as a form of divine communication highlights the multifaceted nature of Hittite religious practice, where the boundaries between the spiritual and the mundane were fluid and permeable.

Unique Aspects of Hittite Religious Beliefs

Syncretism and Adaptation

The Hittite approach to religion was characterized by a remarkable degree of syncretism, the process of adopting and integrating deities and religious practices from other cultures into their own belief system. This syncretism was a reflection of the Hittites’ position as a major power in a region with diverse cultural influences, including the Hurrians, Luwians, and Mesopotamians.

One of the most striking examples of this syncretism is the incorporation of the Hurrian pantheon into Hittite religion. The Hurrian storm god Teshub, for example, was assimilated into the Hittite pantheon and worshipped alongside Tarhunt. Similarly, the Hurrian goddess Hebat became a prominent figure in Hittite religion, often depicted as the consort of Teshub.

The Hittites also adopted religious practices from their neighbors, such as the use of cuneiform writing for recording religious texts and rituals, a practice borrowed from Mesopotamia. The adoption of cuneiform allowed the Hittites to document their religious beliefs and practices in a systematic way, preserving their traditions for future generations.

This syncretism extended beyond the adoption of foreign gods to the blending of different religious traditions into a cohesive system. The Hittites were able to integrate these diverse elements into a unified religious framework, reflecting their pragmatic approach to religion and their ability to adapt to changing circumstances.

The King as High Priest

In Hittite society, the king was not only the political leader but also the chief priest, embodying the union of temporal and spiritual authority. This dual role was central to the concept of divine kingship, where the king was seen as the earthly representative of the gods. The king’s responsibilities as high priest included leading major religious ceremonies, performing sacrifices, and ensuring that the gods were properly worshipped.

The king’s role as high priest was crucial in legitimizing his rule, as it was believed that the king’s authority was derived from the gods. This belief is evident in the numerous treaties and official documents where the king invoked the gods as witnesses to his actions, reinforcing the idea that his rule was sanctioned by divine will.

The king’s participation in religious rituals also served to reinforce the social hierarchy, with the king at the top as the intermediary between the gods and the people. This relationship was reciprocal, as the king’s ability to maintain the favor of the gods was seen as essential to the prosperity and stability of the kingdom.

One example of the king’s role in religious practice is the ritual of the king’s annual renewal, where the king would undergo a symbolic death and rebirth, reaffirming his divine mandate to rule. This ritual, which involved a series of purification ceremonies and offerings, was intended to renew the king’s strength and ensure the continued favor of the gods.

Divine Kingship and Treaties

The concept of divine kingship was deeply embedded in Hittite political ideology, where the king’s authority was seen as being directly derived from the gods. This belief played a crucial role in the Hittite practice of treaty-making, where treaties were often sanctified by invoking the gods as witnesses.

One of the most famous examples of this practice is the Treaty of Kadesh, concluded between the Hittite king Muwatalli II and the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II in 1259 BCE. This treaty, one of the earliest known international agreements, was witnessed by a pantheon of gods from both the Hittite and Egyptian religions. The inclusion of these gods as witnesses was intended to bind both parties to the terms of the treaty, ensuring that it was respected and upheld.

The use of divine witnesses in treaties underscores the intertwining of religion and politics in Hittite society, where the gods were seen as the ultimate enforcers of justice and order. The belief in divine kingship also served to legitimize the king’s rule, as it was believed that the gods had chosen him to govern and protect the people.