The Mari people, numbering around 600,000 globally, are primarily concentrated in the Mari El Republic, a small autonomous region within the Russian Federation. The Mari El Republic is located along the middle course of the Volga River, an area rich in cultural history and natural beauty. The Mari have traditionally lived in harmony with their environment, relying on the region’s dense forests, fertile land, and numerous rivers for sustenance. This connection to nature is deeply reflected in their mythology, which emphasizes respect for natural elements and the belief that every aspect of the natural world is inhabited by spirits.
Historically, the Mari people have been referred to by various names, including Cheremis, a term used by the Russians. However, the name “Mari,” which means “man” in their language, reflects their self-identity and cultural pride. Despite the pressures of modernization and the impact of Russian colonization, the Mari have managed to preserve much of their traditional way of life, including their language, which belongs to the Finno-Ugric family, closely related to Hungarian and Finnish.
Mari mythology serves as the backbone of the Mari cultural identity, guiding their spiritual practices, social structures, and interactions with the natural world. For the Mari, mythology is not a distant relic of the past but a living tradition that continues to influence their daily lives. For instance, the practice of giving offerings to the spirits of nature—whether to ensure a good harvest, protect against disease, or honor deceased ancestors—remains prevalent among the Mari. These rituals are often conducted in sacred groves, which are considered the dwelling places of gods and spirits.
Mari mythology is also a key element in their festivals and community gatherings. One of the most significant festivals is the Great Day (Kugeche), which marks the end of the agricultural year. During this festival, the Mari people honor their deities with prayers, songs, and sacrifices, seeking blessings for the coming year. This event exemplifies how mythology is intertwined with the agricultural calendar, reinforcing the Mari’s connection to the land and the cycles of nature.
Historical Context
Origins of the Mari People
The origins of the Mari people can be traced back over 2,500 years, with archaeological evidence suggesting that they have been settled along the Volga River since the Bronze Age. Their early history is marked by periods of migration and interaction with neighboring peoples, including the Tatars, Mongols, and later, the Russians. The Volga River, known as Ra or Itil in ancient times, has been central to the Mari’s way of life, providing a crucial transportation route, a source of food, and a spiritual symbol.
The Mari were traditionally organized into clan-based communities, each led by a chief or elder who held both spiritual and political authority. These clans were often named after natural features, such as rivers, forests, or animals, reflecting the Mari’s deep connection to their environment. Over time, these clans formed larger confederations, which played a significant role in resisting foreign invasions and maintaining the autonomy of the Mari people.
Interaction with Other Cultures
The Mari’s interaction with other cultures has had a profound impact on their society and mythology. Beginning in the 16th century, the Russian Tsardom, under Ivan the Terrible, began a series of military campaigns known as the “Cheremis Wars” to subjugate the Mari people and incorporate their territory into the expanding Russian state. The introduction of Christianity was a major aspect of this conquest, with Russian Orthodox missionaries working to convert the Mari population. However, the Mari resisted these efforts, leading to the development of a dual faith system where traditional beliefs were maintained alongside Christian practices.
This syncretism is evident in the way the Mari people celebrate Christian holidays such as Easter and Christmas, which are often infused with elements of their native paganism. For example, during Easter, Mari families may still perform rituals to honor their ancestors, including offering food and drink at the gravesites, a practice rooted in pre-Christian traditions. Similarly, Christmas celebrations among the Mari often include the lighting of candles and bonfires, symbolizing the triumph of light over darkness—a theme prevalent in both Christian and Mari mythologies.
Structure of Mari Mythology
Creation Myths
The creation myths of the Mari people are central to their understanding of the universe and their place within it. One of the most widely known Mari creation myths begins with an eternal ocean, representing the primordial chaos from which the world emerged. A duck, a sacred animal in Mari culture, plays a pivotal role by diving into the depths of the ocean to bring up a handful of earth, from which the land was created. This myth reflects the Mari’s belief in the interconnectedness of all life and the importance of the natural elements—water, earth, sky—in the formation of the world.
Jum (Kugu Jumo), the sky god, is the primary creator deity in Mari mythology. He is often depicted as a benevolent figure who governs the forces of light and goodness. His brother, Jõn (Kijamat), who rules the underworld, represents the darker, more destructive forces. Together, these two deities embody the dualistic nature of the universe, where light and dark, life and death, coexist in a delicate balance. This dualism is reflected in many aspects of Mari culture, from their rituals to their worldview.
Pantheon of Gods and Deities
The Mari pantheon is rich with gods, goddesses, and spirits, each with specific roles and attributes.
- Oš Kugu Jumo (Great White God): The highest deity in Mari mythology, Oš Kugu Jumo is associated with the sky, light, and creation. He is considered the protector of the Mari people, and his favor is sought in important life events, such as births, marriages, and harvests. Temples dedicated to Kugu Jumo were traditionally built on high ground, symbolizing his dominion over the sky and his role as the overseer of all earthly affairs.
- Kijamat: As the god of the underworld, Kijamat represents death and the afterlife. However, unlike the Christian devil, Kijamat is not inherently evil; rather, he is a necessary counterpart to Kugu Jumo, ensuring that the natural cycle of life and death is maintained. In Mari funerary rituals, offerings are made to Kijamat to ensure the safe passage of the deceased’s soul to the afterlife.
- Pürõžö: The god of fate, Pürõžö, controls the destinies of individuals and communities. His role is crucial in Mari mythology, as he determines the outcome of important events, such as battles, harvests, and personal fortunes. The Mari often seek Pürõžö’s guidance through divination rituals, using natural objects like stones, bones, or water to interpret his will.
- Mlandava: The Earth Mother, Mlandava, embodies fertility, agriculture, and the nurturing aspects of nature. She is worshipped as the source of all life, and her blessings are sought for a bountiful harvest. Mari agricultural rituals often involve offerings to Mlandava, including the first fruits of the season and symbolic representations of the earth, such as soil or grains.
In addition to these major deities, the Mari pantheon includes numerous lesser gods and spirits, each associated with specific aspects of nature, such as forests, rivers, and animals. These spirits are believed to inhabit the natural world and must be respected and appeased to ensure harmony between humans and nature. For example, the forest spirit, known as Keremet, is often invoked during hunting expeditions to ask for permission to take the lives of animals.
Cosmology and Beliefs
The World Structure
Mari cosmology presents a detailed and layered understanding of the universe. Central to this belief system is the idea that the world is supported by a great pillar, Kava Menge, which connects the earthly realm to the heavens. This pillar is thought to revolve around the Northern Star, which holds a significant place in Mari navigation and spiritual practices. The Northern Star, or Polar Star, is often used in Mari folklore as a symbol of constancy and guidance, much like it is in many other ancient cultures.
The Mari divide the world into three distinct realms: the upper world (heaven), the middle world (earth), and the lower world (underworld). Each of these realms is populated by different gods, spirits, and beings, all of which play a role in maintaining the balance of the universe. For example, the upper world is the domain of Kugu Jumo and other celestial beings, while the middle world is inhabited by humans, animals, and nature spirits. The lower world, ruled by Kijamat, is where souls go after death and where destructive forces like disease and famine originate.
Sacred Groves and Rituals
Sacred groves, or keremet, are among the most important religious sites for the Mari people. These groves, often located in secluded areas of the forest, serve as natural temples where the Mari conduct their rituals and communicate with the gods. Unlike the constructed temples of many other religions, these groves are left in their natural state, emphasizing the Mari belief in the sanctity of untouched nature.
Rituals in the keremet are deeply rooted in the Mari agricultural calendar and often revolve around key seasonal changes. During the autumn, for instance, the Mari people conduct thanksgiving rituals in these groves to show gratitude for the harvest. This is typically done by offering the first fruits of the harvest, along with livestock sacrifices. These offerings are seen as necessary to appease the spirits of the land and ensure the fertility of the soil for the following year.
A distinctive feature of these rituals is the communal nature of the ceremonies. Entire villages often gather in the sacred groves, led by a kart, or priest, who performs the necessary rites. The kart holds a revered position in Mari society, acting as an intermediary between the people and the gods. They are responsible not only for conducting rituals but also for interpreting omens and providing spiritual guidance to the community.
The Mari’s sacred groves are also sites for personal and family rituals, such as rites of passage, marriages, and funerals. For example, during a marriage ceremony, a couple might visit a keremet to seek the blessings of the gods for a prosperous union. Similarly, when a family member passes away, offerings are made in the grove to ensure the deceased’s soul is accepted into the afterlife.
One of the most sacred and solemn ceremonies conducted in the keremet is the Yumo Syko, a grand prayer to the supreme deity Kugu Jumo. This event, held once every few years, involves a large gathering of people who come together to pray for the well-being of their community and the protection of their land. The ceremony is marked by collective chanting, the offering of food, and the symbolic lighting of a large bonfire, which is believed to carry their prayers up to the heavens.
The preservation of these groves is of utmost importance to the Mari, as they are considered to be the physical embodiment of their connection to the divine. Unfortunately, these sacred spaces are increasingly threatened by modern development and deforestation, making the protection of keremet a critical issue for the Mari people.
Mythology in Contemporary Mari Society
Modern Religious Practices
In contemporary Mari society, the practice of traditional religious rituals continues to be a vital part of daily life, although it has evolved to accommodate modern realities. Many Mari people, particularly in rural areas, still adhere to the dual faith system, where Christian and pagan practices coexist. For example, it is not uncommon for a Mari family to celebrate a Christian holiday by attending church in the morning and then performing a traditional pagan ritual in the evening.
One of the key rituals that has persisted into modern times is the Kugu Sorta, or Great Prayer, a large-scale ceremony held in sacred groves. This ritual is particularly important for the Mari people as it is a communal event where they collectively seek blessings for health, prosperity, and protection from natural disasters. The Kugu Sorta usually involves the sacrifice of a ram or a rooster, which is then shared among the participants as a symbol of communal unity and divine favor.
The modern Mari religious practices also include personal and family rituals, such as the Kudyr ritual, where small offerings of bread, butter, and eggs are placed at crossroads to appease local spirits. This practice is believed to bring good fortune and protect against illness and misfortune. Despite the challenges posed by modernization and urbanization, these practices remain an integral part of Mari identity, helping to maintain their connection to their ancestors and their land.
In urban areas, the practice of traditional rituals has become more challenging due to the lack of access to sacred groves and the pressures of modern life. However, efforts are being made to adapt these rituals to contemporary settings. For example, some Mari communities have established small urban sanctuaries where they can perform rituals and celebrate festivals. Additionally, the internet has become a tool for preserving and sharing Mari religious practices, with online forums and social media groups providing a space for Mari people to connect, share rituals, and discuss their faith.
Literary and Cultural Preservation
The preservation of Mari mythology is not limited to religious practices but extends into the literary and cultural domains. The epic poem Jugorno, which recounts the stories of Mari gods and heroes, is a key cultural artifact that has been passed down through generations. This poem, along with other traditional tales, has been documented and published in both the Mari language and Russian, ensuring its accessibility to a wider audience.
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Mari folklore and mythology, driven in part by cultural festivals that celebrate Mari traditions. The annual Mari Unity Day, for instance, is a significant event where people come together to celebrate their heritage through music, dance, and storytelling. These festivals play a crucial role in keeping Mari mythology alive, particularly among the younger generation, who may not be as familiar with their cultural roots.
Educational initiatives have also been launched to promote the Mari language and mythology in schools and universities. In the Mari El Republic, Mari language courses are offered as part of the standard curriculum, and there are specialized programs that focus on Mari history and culture. These efforts are vital in ensuring that the Mari people continue to pass on their unique heritage to future generations.
Cultural Erosion
The Mari people face significant challenges in preserving their mythology and traditional practices, particularly in the face of cultural erosion. The Soviet era was especially damaging to Mari cultural identity, as the Soviet government actively suppressed religious practices and promoted atheism. Many sacred groves were destroyed, and traditional rituals were driven underground. The impact of these policies is still felt today, with many Mari people, especially the younger generation, having only a limited understanding of their traditional beliefs.
The decline of the Mari language is another major concern. While the Mari language is still spoken by many older members of the community, it is increasingly being replaced by Russian, particularly among the younger generation. Language is a key carrier of cultural knowledge, and the loss of the Mari language poses a serious threat to the transmission of Mari mythology. Efforts to revitalize the language, such as language courses and the publication of books in Mari, are crucial to preserving the cultural heritage of the Mari people.
Urbanization and migration are also contributing to the erosion of Mari culture. As more Mari people move to cities in search of employment and education, they often become disconnected from their traditional way of life. In urban environments, there is less opportunity to participate in communal rituals or to speak the Mari language. This shift away from rural, community-based living presents a significant challenge to the preservation of Mari mythology and cultural practices.
Despite these challenges, there are ongoing efforts to preserve Mari mythology and cultural identity. Cultural organizations, such as the Mari National Theater and various folklore ensembles, play a key role in promoting Mari culture. These organizations perform traditional Mari plays, dances, and songs, helping to keep the mythology and folklore alive in a modern context. The Mari National Theater, for example, regularly stages performances of traditional Mari epics and legends, bringing these ancient stories to life for contemporary audiences.
There are also grassroots initiatives aimed at protecting sacred groves and other cultural sites. Local communities, often with the support of non-governmental organizations, work to preserve and restore keremet, recognizing their importance as both religious sites and cultural landmarks. These efforts often involve legal advocacy to prevent the development of these areas, as well as community-driven projects to maintain and care for the groves.
In addition, there has been a growing interest in documenting and studying Mari mythology from an academic perspective. Researchers and scholars, both within Russia and internationally, are working to collect and analyze Mari myths, rituals, and folklore. This research is crucial for preserving the knowledge of Mari mythology and ensuring that it is passed down to future generations.
Technology is also being harnessed to aid in the preservation of Mari culture. Online platforms and social media have become valuable tools for Mari communities to share their traditions and connect with each other. Websites dedicated to Mari culture provide resources for learning the language, accessing traditional music and literature, and participating in online discussions about Mari mythology. These digital initiatives are helping to bridge the gap between the older and younger generations, ensuring that Mari culture remains vibrant and relevant in the modern world.
