The Scythians, a formidable nomadic people who traversed the expansive Eurasian steppes from the 9th century BCE to the 4th century CE, left a significant mark on the ancient world. Although they are predominantly remembered for their military prowess, horseback warfare, and nomadic lifestyle, the Scythians also possessed a rich and intricate mythology that shaped their social fabric, influenced daily practices, and continues to intrigue modern scholars. Their mythology was not merely a set of stories but a profound cultural framework that provided insights into the Scythians’ understanding of the world, social order, and their relationship with the divine.
The Scythian Pantheon
Major Deities and Their Roles
The Scythian pantheon was composed of a diverse array of gods and goddesses, each embodying critical aspects of life, nature, and human existence. Tabiti, the goddess of fire and the hearth, was one of the most venerated deities. Fire, for the Scythians, was not just a source of warmth and light but a sacred element central to their survival in the harsh steppe environment. Tabiti’s reverence in Scythian culture is evident in the frequent ritual maintenance of hearth fires, which were never allowed to extinguish, symbolizing her perpetual presence and protection over the family and the community. Comparisons can be drawn between Tabiti and Hestia of Greek mythology, both embodying the sanctity of the hearth and the home.
Papaios, another crucial figure, was the sky god and was considered the father of the gods. He was often equated with Zeus by the Greeks, which underscores the Scythian belief in a supreme deity who ruled over the cosmos. Papaios symbolized authority, justice, and the overarching control of the heavens, reflecting the Scythians’ deep respect for the natural elements that governed their lives. In some depictions, Papaios is shown wielding a thunderbolt, further aligning him with the imagery of a sky god who controls the forces of nature.
Perhaps the most enigmatic deity in the Scythian pantheon was Artimpasa, also known as Argimpasa. Artimpasa was a goddess of fertility, sovereignty, and warfare, demonstrating the Scythian belief in the interconnectedness of these domains. Her androgynous depiction—often featuring both male and female characteristics—suggests a complex understanding of gender roles within Scythian society, where spiritual power could transcend gender. This deity was associated with sacred kingship, and her blessings were sought before battles, during coronations, and in fertility rites. Artimpasa’s influence was so profound that her image was often carried into battle, believed to bring divine favor to the warriors.
Another notable figure in Scythian mythology is the Snake-Legged Goddess, who is sometimes referred to as the Mother Goddess. She was often depicted as a serpent or a woman with serpentine legs, symbolizing her connection to the earth and the underworld. This deity was associated with fertility, the earth, and the continuity of life, and she was considered the progenitor of the Scythian people. The snake, a common symbol in many ancient cultures, represented the cyclical nature of life and death, regeneration, and the mystery of the earth’s depths. The Snake-Legged Goddess was thus a powerful symbol of life, death, and rebirth, central to the Scythian understanding of the natural and spiritual world.
Cosmology and the Tripartite World
Scythian cosmology was based on the belief in a tripartite universe, which was divided into the Upper World, the Middle World, and the Lower World. The Upper World was the domain of celestial beings like Papaios, who oversaw the heavens and maintained cosmic order. The Middle World, where humans lived, was under the protection of deities like Artimpasa, who influenced fertility, warfare, and social order. The Lower World was associated with the earth and the afterlife, ruled by chthonic deities like the Snake-Legged Goddess. This division of the universe into three realms was not unique to the Scythians but reflected a broader Indo-European belief system, where each world had its own distinct gods, spirits, and rules. The concept of the tripartite world was central to Scythian religious practices, with rituals often designed to appease deities in each realm to maintain harmony and balance in the universe.
Rituals and Ceremonies
Sacrifices and Offerings
Ritual sacrifice was a fundamental aspect of Scythian religious practice, deeply embedded in their attempts to maintain a harmonious relationship with the gods. These sacrifices, often conducted by priests or shamans, were performed to appease the gods, seek their favor, and ensure the well-being of the community. Horses, which were of immense value in Scythian society as both practical assets and spiritual symbols, were the most common sacrificial animals. In Scythian culture, the horse was not just a means of transportation or a tool of war but also a sacred animal believed to possess a soul. The sacrifice of horses was thus considered a powerful offering to the gods, symbolizing the giving of life and strength.
In some instances, human sacrifices were also conducted, particularly in the context of royal burials. These sacrifices were usually made to accompany a deceased ruler into the afterlife, ensuring that the king or queen was not alone in the journey to the other world. The practice of human sacrifice in royal burials is supported by archaeological evidence, such as the discovery of mass graves containing the remains of servants, warriors, and even family members alongside the mummified bodies of Scythian royalty. These sacrifices were believed to be necessary to maintain the cosmic order and ensure the ruler’s continued power and protection in the afterlife.
Shamanistic Practices
Shamanism played a central role in Scythian religious life, with shamans acting as intermediaries between the human and spiritual worlds. The Enaree, a special class of Scythian shamans, were particularly notable for their androgynous nature and their reputed ability to communicate with the gods and spirits. The Enaree were often born male but adopted female roles, which was believed to enhance their spiritual powers. This gender fluidity was seen as a divine gift, allowing the Enaree to transcend ordinary human limitations and access higher spiritual realms.
The Enaree were also known for their use of psychoactive substances, such as cannabis, in their rituals. Cannabis remnants have been found in Scythian burial sites, suggesting that the plant was used in religious ceremonies to induce altered states of consciousness. These altered states allowed the Enaree to commune with the divine, perform acts of healing, and predict the future. The use of psychoactive substances in shamanistic practices was not unique to the Scythians but was part of a broader tradition of using natural plants and herbs to facilitate spiritual experiences across many ancient cultures.
Mythological Themes and Narratives
Heroic Legends
One of the most prominent legends in Scythian mythology is the story of Targitaos, the legendary ancestor of the Scythian people. According to the legend, Targitaos was born of a union between a god and a river goddess, symbolizing the divine origin of the Scythians. This myth served to legitimize the Scythians’ claim to their lands and their status as a chosen people, favored by the gods.
Targitaos was gifted with four sacred objects by the gods: a plow, a yoke, a battle-axe, and a cup. These items represented the essential aspects of Scythian life—agriculture, animal husbandry, warfare, and religious rituals. The plow and yoke symbolized the importance of farming and domesticated animals in Scythian society, while the battle-axe represented their warrior culture and their reputation as fierce fighters. The cup, often associated with ritual drinking and sacrifices, underscored the significance of religious ceremonies in maintaining the favor of the gods. The story of Targitaos and these divine gifts emphasized the Scythians’ belief in their divine right to rule and the sacred nature of their social order.
Moral and Ethical Teachings
Scythian myths were rich in moral and ethical teachings, providing guidelines for behavior and social conduct. For instance, the myths emphasized values such as bravery in battle, loyalty to one’s tribe, and respect for nature. These values were central to Scythian culture, where a warrior’s honor and loyalty to his tribe were paramount. The Scythians were known for their fierce independence and their commitment to protecting their way of life, which was reflected in their mythology.
One myth that illustrates the importance of loyalty and bravery is the story of the Scythian Heroic King, who, after defeating a powerful enemy, refuses to kill his adversary out of respect for his bravery in battle. Instead, the king offers him clemency and invites him to join his tribe, thus demonstrating the values of honor, respect for one’s enemies, and the importance of loyalty to one’s allies. This story, like many others in Scythian mythology, served as a moral compass for the Scythians, reinforcing the social norms and ethical standards that were vital to maintaining the cohesion and stability of their society.
Influence of Scythian Mythology on Society
Social Structure and Religion
Scythian society was distinctly hierarchical, with a powerful elite ruling over the common populace. This social stratification was deeply intertwined with their mythology, which provided a divine mandate for the ruling class. The ruling elite, particularly the kings, were believed to be direct descendants of the gods, a belief that was reinforced through myths such as the story of Targitaos. This divine ancestry legitimized their authority and reinforced the idea that the rulers were not just political leaders but also spiritual figures responsible for maintaining the balance between the human and divine realms.
For instance, the Scythian king was not only the head of the state but also the high priest of the nation. His role involved performing sacred rituals to appease the gods, particularly during critical times such as before battles, during harvests, or in times of crisis. The king’s ability to successfully communicate with the divine was seen as essential to the prosperity and survival of the tribe. The belief in the divine right of kings was so strong that any failure, such as a military defeat or natural disaster, could lead to the king being deposed or even sacrificed, as it was seen as a sign of the gods’ displeasure.
Furthermore, the Scythian elite often used their divine status to justify their wealth and power. For example, the lavish burial mounds, known as kurgans, which housed the remains of Scythian kings, were not just funerary monuments but also symbols of their divine heritage. These kurgans, some of which were over 20 meters high and contained vast amounts of gold, weapons, and other valuables, were meant to ensure that the king would continue to live in luxury and maintain his power in the afterlife. The grandeur of these burial sites reinforced the idea that the Scythian elite were different from ordinary people, not just in life but in death as well.
Impact on Daily Life
Scythian mythology permeated nearly every aspect of daily life, influencing agricultural practices, social customs, and artistic expressions. For instance, the Scythians believed that the success of their agricultural activities was directly linked to their relationship with the gods, particularly those associated with fertility, such as Artimpasa. Before planting or harvesting, the Scythians would conduct rituals and offer sacrifices to these deities to ensure bountiful crops. The use of sacred symbols, such as the plow gifted by the gods to Targitaos, in these rituals underscored the divine nature of their agricultural practices.
Marriage customs were also deeply influenced by Scythian mythology. The joining of two individuals in marriage was seen as not just a social contract but a sacred union blessed by the gods. Marriages were often accompanied by elaborate rituals, including sacrifices and feasts, to invoke the favor of the gods and ensure the fertility of the couple. The importance of these rituals is reflected in Scythian art, where scenes of weddings and fertility rites are commonly depicted.
Even in death, the Scythians continued to honor their myths and gods. The practice of constructing kurgans was not limited to the elite; commoners, too, were often buried with ritual objects, though on a less grand scale. These burial sites often contained items that the deceased would need in the afterlife, such as weapons, tools, and food, indicating a belief in an afterlife where the soul would continue to exist and require sustenance. The inclusion of such items in graves highlights the deep-seated belief in the continuation of life beyond death, a concept that was central to Scythian cosmology.
Scythian art, too, was heavily influenced by their mythology. The intricate designs on their jewelry, weapons, and pottery often depicted scenes from their myths, such as battles between gods, legendary heroes, or the sacred animals associated with their deities. For example, the golden comb found in a Scythian burial mound in Solokha features a detailed depiction of a battle scene, believed to represent a mythological conflict involving divine or semi-divine figures. These artistic expressions served not only as decoration but also as a means of reinforcing cultural identity and reminding the Scythians of their divine heritage.
Archaeological Discoveries
The legacy of Scythian mythology is most vividly preserved in the archaeological remains found across the Eurasian steppes. The kurgans, or burial mounds, are among the most significant of these remains, providing a wealth of information about Scythian beliefs, practices, and social structures. These mounds, some of which date back to the 4th century BCE, contain not only the remains of the deceased but also a treasure trove of artifacts, including gold jewelry, weapons, and ritual objects. These items offer a glimpse into the spiritual life of the Scythians and the importance they placed on the afterlife.
One of the most famous archaeological finds related to Scythian mythology is the Pazyryk carpet, discovered in the Altai Mountains. This carpet, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the oldest known pile carpet in the world and features intricate designs that are believed to have symbolic meaning, possibly depicting scenes from Scythian mythology. The motifs on the carpet include stylized animals and possibly divine figures, suggesting that it may have been used in religious or ceremonial contexts.
Another remarkable discovery is the Scythian Gold, a collection of gold artifacts unearthed from various Scythian burial sites. These artifacts, which include jewelry, weapons, and ceremonial items, are often adorned with intricate depictions of mythological scenes, such as battles between gods or the representation of sacred animals like the griffin or the deer. The craftsmanship and the symbolic motifs on these gold items highlight the importance of mythology in Scythian art and its role in conveying religious and cultural values.
Influence on Modern Culture
Scythian mythology has left a lasting impact on modern culture, inspiring countless works of art, literature, and scholarship. The enigmatic nature of Scythian myths, combined with the striking imagery found in their art and artifacts, continues to captivate modern audiences. Scholars and archaeologists have devoted extensive research to unraveling the mysteries of Scythian mythology, leading to a deeper understanding of their culture and its influence on the broader Eurasian region.
In literature, Scythian themes have been explored in various works, from historical novels to fantasy fiction. The Scythians’ reputation as fierce warriors and their rich mythological heritage have provided fertile ground for authors to create compelling narratives set in the ancient steppes. These stories often draw on Scythian myths, such as the tale of Targitaos or the exploits of Scythian heroes, to create a vivid and immersive world that resonates with readers.
Scythian mythology has also found its way into modern art, with contemporary artists drawing inspiration from the symbolic motifs and themes found in Scythian artifacts. For example, the Serpent-Sword motif, often associated with the Snake-Legged Goddess, has been reinterpreted in various artistic forms, from sculpture to jewelry design. These modern interpretations not only pay homage to Scythian culture but also explore the timeless nature of their myths, highlighting the universal themes of life, death, and the quest for meaning.
In popular culture, the Scythians have been featured in films, television series, and video games, often portrayed as formidable warriors with a rich and mysterious cultural heritage. These portrayals, while sometimes exaggerated for dramatic effect, help to keep the memory of Scythian mythology alive in the public consciousness, ensuring that their legacy continues to inspire and intrigue new generations.
