Angola, a country located on the southwestern coast of Africa, boasts a rich and tumultuous history marked by the rise and fall of kingdoms, colonial exploitation, and a prolonged struggle for independence. From the early establishment of agricultural societies around 1000 BCE to the formation of powerful kingdoms such as Kongo, Ndongo, and Matamba, Angola’s pre-colonial era was characterized by significant socio-political development. The arrival of Portuguese explorers in 1483 heralded a new era of colonization, which saw Angola becoming a pivotal centre for the transatlantic slave trade. The transition from a Portuguese colony to an overseas province in the mid-20th century set the stage for a fierce struggle for independence, leading to the establishment of an independent Angola in 1975. The subsequent decades were marred by a devastating civil war that lasted until 2002, after which Angola embarked on a challenging path of reconstruction and economic recovery.
Chronological history of Angola
Early History and Pre-Colonial Period
- up to ca. 1000 BCE: Pre-Bantu Migration Era
- Early hunter-gatherer societies, including Khoisan-speaking groups, occupied the region.
- Evidence of rock art and stone tools suggests a long-term human presence.
- ca. 1000 BCE – 500 CE: Bantu Migration
- Bantu-speaking peoples began migrating to Angola from the north.
- They introduced agriculture, ironworking, and new social structures, leading to the displacement or assimilation of earlier groups.
- 500 CE – 1300 CE: Early Kingdoms and Societies
- Formation of organized societies and small kingdoms.
- Development of trade networks and cultural exchanges among various groups.
- 1300 CE – 1483 CE: Kingdom of Kongo
- Established by Bantu migrants, with its capital at Mbanza Kongo (in present-day northern Angola).
- Ruled by Mwene Kongo, with Niaza as a notable early ruler in the 1330s.
- Nkuwu a Ntinu ruled just before the arrival of the Portuguese, followed by Nzinga a Nkuwu at the time of initial Portuguese contact.
- The Kingdom of Kongo became a significant regional power with advanced social and political systems.
- pre-1400 CE – 16th century: Kingdom of Ndongo
- Located south of the Kongo, the Kingdom of Ndongo was established and ruled by leaders known as Ngola, from which the name “Angola” is derived.
- Ngola Kiluanje was a prominent ruler when the Portuguese first arrived in the late 15th century.
- The kingdom engaged in alliances and conflicts with neighbouring states and the expanding Kongo Kingdom.
- 15th century: Kingdom of Matamba
- Founded by Queen Nzinga, a leader from Ndongo, who moved here after conflicts with the Portuguese.
- Known for its resistance against Portuguese encroachment and efforts to maintain independence and regional influence.
- Other Notable Kingdoms and Entities
- Kingdom of Ngoyo: Coastal kingdom engaged in regional trade.
- Kingdom of Kakongo: Another coastal kingdom influenced by the Kongo.
- Lunda Empire: Located further inland, noted for its centralized administration and military strength.
- Imbangala: Warrior groups known for their militaristic lifestyle and involvement in the slave trade, often as mercenaries.
Portuguese Exploration and Colonial Period
- Late 15th Century: Initial Contact
- 1482: Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches the mouth of the Congo River, marking the first European contact with the Kongo Kingdom.
- 1484: Diogo Cão establishes diplomatic relations with the Kongo Kingdom, which begins converting to Christianity and adopting European customs.
- 16th Century: Establishing Footholds
- 1575: Paulo Dias de Novais found Luanda, establishing a permanent Portuguese settlement.
- 1580-1600: The Portuguese engage in conflict with the Ndongo Kingdom, seeking to expand their influence in the region through alliances and military campaigns.
- 17th Century: Expansion and Conflict
- 1610: The Portuguese expand their control, founding Benguela as a new port for the slave trade.
- 1620s-1660s: Portugal battles the Ndongo and Matamba kingdoms. Queen Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba emerges as a formidable opponent, using diplomatic and military strategies to resist Portuguese domination.
- 1665: Portugal defeats the Kongo Kingdom at the Battle of Mbwila, consolidating their power in the region.
- 18th Century: Consolidation and Slave Trade
- 1700-1800: Portuguese influence grows as they expand into the Bié Plateau and forge treaties with local states. The slave trade becomes central to the economy, with Angola serving as a major source of slaves for the Americas.
- 19th Century: Resistance and Treaty Negotiations
- 1820s: Slave trade peaks, with millions of Angolans being shipped to the Americas, primarily Brazil.
- 1884-1885: The Berlin Conference formalizes European claims in Africa. Portugal negotiates borders with other colonial powers, establishing the boundaries of modern Angola.
- 1890-1900: The Portuguese faced resistance from local kingdoms, but gradually extended their control over the interior.
- Early 20th Century: Colonial Administration
- 1900-1930: Portuguese administration solidifies, with increased investment in infrastructure and exploitation of natural resources. Native resistance continues sporadically.
- 1951: Angola becomes an overseas province of Portugal, integrating more closely with the Portuguese state.
Civil War and Turbulence
- 1950-1975: War of Independence
- 1950s-1960s: Rise of nationalist movements, including the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA, seeking independence from Portuguese rule.
- 1961: The Angolan War of Independence begins, with the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) fighting against Portuguese colonial rule.
- 1974: The Carnation Revolution in Portugal leads to a change in government, signalling the end of colonial wars and paving the way for Angolan independence.
- 1975: The Alvor Agreement was signed, intended to form a transitional government. However, the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA quickly turned against each other. Angola achieved independence on November 11, 1975, but immediately descended into civil war.
- 1975-2002: Civil War
- 1975: The MPLA, backed by Cuban troops and Soviet support, takes control of the capital, Luanda. The FNLA and UNITA receive support from the United States, South Africa, and Zaire.
- 1976-1980s: The MPLA solidified power, but the conflict continued with significant foreign intervention. South Africa conducts several incursions into southern Angola to support UNITA.
- 1991: The Bicesse Accords are signed, calling for a ceasefire and the first multiparty elections.
- 1992: Elections were held; the MPLA won, but UNITA disputed the results and resumed fighting.
- 1993: The United Nations imposes an embargo on UNITA.
- 1994: The Lusaka Protocol is signed, but peace is fragile and fighting continues sporadically.
- 1998-2002: Renewed intense fighting occurs. The death of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi in 2002 led to the end of the civil war.
Post-War Reconstruction and Modern Era
- 2002-2005: Immediate Post-War Reconstruction
- 2002: The Angolan Civil War ends with the death of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi. MPLA (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola) consolidates power.
- 2003: Launch of extensive infrastructure reconstruction projects funded by oil revenues and international loans, particularly from China.
- 2004: Demining operations begin to clear the vast number of landmines left from the civil war, essential for agricultural recovery and resettlement of displaced populations.
- 2005: Establishment of the National Reconstruction Office to oversee rebuilding efforts, focusing on roads, railways, and public buildings.
- 2006-2010: Economic Growth and Infrastructure Development
- 2006: Angola becomes a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), emphasizing its role as a significant oil producer.
- 2007: Implementation of the Angola National Reconstruction Plan, focusing on repairing war-damaged infrastructure and improving basic services like healthcare and education.
- 2008: Angola holds its first legislative elections since 1992, with MPLA securing a dominant victory. Political stability promotes further foreign investment.
- 2010: Adoption of a new constitution that enhances presidential powers and introduces measures for decentralization to improve local governance.
- 2011-2015: Continuing Development and Emerging Challenges
- 2011: Angola’s economy continues to grow robustly, driven by high oil prices, with significant investments in public infrastructure and housing.
- 2012: Presidential and legislative elections reaffirm MPLA’s control, but concerns over political corruption and lack of transparency begin to surface.
- 2013: Large-scale infrastructure projects, including the construction of new cities and transport networks, accelerate. However, disparities between urban and rural development become evident.
- 2014: Falling oil prices begin to strain Angola’s economy, highlighting its dependence on oil revenues and prompting the government to consider economic diversification strategies.
- 2015: The economic crisis deepens as oil prices plummet, leading to budget cuts and a slowdown in infrastructure projects. This year marks the beginning of significant economic challenges for Angola.
- 2016-2020: Economic Diversification and Social Issues
- 2016: The government launches initiatives to diversify the economy, focusing on agriculture, mining, and tourism to reduce reliance on oil.
- 2017: João Lourenço becomes President, succeeding long-time leader José Eduardo dos Santos. Lourenço pledges to tackle corruption and implement economic reforms.
- 2018: Anti-corruption campaigns lead to high-profile arrests and trials, including those of officials close to the former president. Efforts to attract foreign investment intensify.
- 2019: Economic reforms begin to show mixed results. While some progress is made, challenges such as unemployment, inflation, and poverty persist.
- 2020: The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbates existing economic difficulties, with lockdowns impacting the informal sector and overall economic activity. The government increased efforts to mitigate the pandemic’s impact through social assistance programs.
- 2021-Present: Recovery and Modern Challenges
- 2021: Angola continues to navigate economic recovery from the dual impacts of the oil price crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic. Reforms in the banking sector and public finances aim to stabilize the economy.
- 2022: Celebrations mark 20 years of peace since the end of the civil war. Despite progress, Angola faces ongoing challenges including high levels of poverty and unemployment.
- 2023: The government focuses on enhancing digital infrastructure and increasing foreign investment to foster economic growth. Environmental and social issues, such as climate change and urbanization, become prominent on the national agenda.
From early civilizations and the impacts of Portuguese colonization to the brutal civil war and eventual peace, the nation’s journey has been complex and arduous. The cessation of conflict in 2002 marked a significant turning point, enabling Angola to focus on rebuilding and harnessing its rich natural resources, particularly oil, to foster economic growth. Today, Angola continues to navigate the challenges of post-war recovery, striving towards political stability and sustainable development while reflecting on its rich historical legacy.
