Mangareva, the largest and most significant island in the Gambier archipelago, occupies a central role in the history of Polynesia. This island, measuring approximately 8.5 square kilometers, was historically one of the main hubs for Polynesian voyaging. The islanders, skilled navigators, contributed to the development of extensive trade networks across the Pacific, linking Mangareva with distant islands such as Pitcairn, Henderson, and even Easter Island (Rapa Nui).
The population of Mangareva at its peak is estimated to have been between 5,000 to 8,000 people, living in a society structured around hierarchical chieftainships. The island’s environment, dominated by a central volcanic peak and surrounded by a coral reef, provided a natural fortress, making it an ideal location for the development of a unique culture and mythology. This isolated yet interconnected position in Polynesia gave rise to a rich tapestry of myths, rooted in the natural world and the social structures that governed the lives of the Mangarevans.
Mangarevan mythology forms a critical part of the broader Polynesian cultural narrative, providing insights into how the islanders understood their world and their place within it. Unlike many other Polynesian societies, Mangareva experienced significant environmental challenges, including deforestation and soil erosion, which were likely exacerbated by human activity. These challenges influenced the development of their myths, many of which reflect concerns about environmental stewardship and the balance between human society and nature.
For example, the island’s mythology often includes references to the sacredness of certain trees, such as the coconut and breadfruit trees, which were essential for survival. The coconut tree, in particular, was not just a source of food and water but also symbolized life and fertility in Mangarevan myths. The deification of natural elements like these trees indicates a deep respect for the environment and a recognition of its importance in sustaining human life.
Creation Myths and Deities
Major Deities
Atu-motua and Atu-moana: Atu-motua, often depicted as the patriarchal figure among the gods, represents the authority and wisdom of the elder males in society. His counterpart, Atu-moana, symbolizes the ocean’s vastness and unpredictability, crucial to the islanders’ lives as navigators and fishermen. The ocean, being both a provider and a potential threat, was central to the Mangarevan worldview. Atu-moana’s worship likely involved rituals aimed at appeasing the sea, ensuring safe voyages and abundant catches.
The duality of these deities reflects the broader Polynesian concept of balance, where opposing forces must coexist harmoniously. In practical terms, this belief translated into strict societal rules about how resources, especially those from the sea, were to be used and shared. The legends surrounding Atu-moana often include themes of respect for the ocean’s power and the consequences of hubris, such as tales of fishermen who overstepped their bounds and faced divine retribution.
Atea and Atanua: Atea, the personification of space or the sky, is a significant figure across Polynesia, and in Mangareva, his role is closely tied to Atanua, the goddess of the sky. Their union represents the creation of the world as a harmonious balance between the heavens and the earth. This concept is mirrored in the physical landscape of Mangareva, where the high peaks of the island seem to reach towards the sky, a visual representation of the gods’ interaction.
Atea’s mythology often includes stories about the creation of light and the separation of the sky from the earth, which are metaphors for the birth of order from chaos. These myths highlight the importance of structure and hierarchy in Mangarevan society, where social order was maintained through strict adherence to the laws and traditions passed down by the gods.
Tangaroa: Tangaroa, revered as the god of the sea, is one of the most prominent deities in Polynesian mythology. In Mangareva, his influence extended beyond the sea to encompass creation and fertility. Tangaroa was often invoked in rituals related to fishing, voyaging, and the fertility of crops and people. His temples, or marae, were typically located near the coast, reflecting his dominion over the ocean.
In Mangarevan society, Tangaroa’s importance was reinforced by the islanders’ dependence on the sea for survival. Fishing was not only a vital food source but also a spiritual act, with fishermen offering prayers and sacrifices to Tangaroa to ensure a good catch. The rituals associated with Tangaroa often involved elaborate ceremonies, including the recitation of genealogies and chants, which connected the living with their divine ancestors and reinforced the social hierarchy.
The Creation Narrative
Absence of a Strong Creation Myth: While other Polynesian cultures have detailed creation myths, such as the Maori’s story of Rangi and Papa, Mangareva’s creation narrative is more fragmented. This could be due to the island’s later contact with other Polynesian societies, leading to the adoption and adaptation of external myths. However, what exists of Mangareva’s creation stories emphasizes the interconnectedness of all life and the importance of genealogy, linking the gods directly to the people.
Role of Atea and Atanua: The story of Atea and Atanua in Mangarevan mythology underscores the belief in a universe created through the union of complementary forces. Atea, as the god of space, is often associated with the vastness and emptiness that existed before creation, while Atanua, as the sky goddess, represents the order and structure that emerged. Their children are seen as the ancestors of the Mangarevans, reinforcing the idea that the people are directly descended from the gods.
Tiki Myth: The myth of Tiki creating the first woman, Hina-one, is a recurring theme across Polynesia. In Mangareva, Tiki is often portrayed as a demi-god or a cultural hero, bridging the divine and human worlds. The story of Tiki and Hina-one reflects the island’s societal values, particularly the emphasis on procreation and the continuation of the family line. The incestuous relationship that Tiki engages in with his daughter is a common motif in Polynesian mythology, often symbolizing the origins of taboo and the establishment of social norms.
Key Mythological Figures and Stories
Tangaroa’s Descendants
The Eight Sons: Tangaroa’s sons play a crucial role in Mangarevan mythology, each governing different aspects of life. Tu, the god associated with the fertility of breadfruit trees, reflects the central role that these trees played in the island’s economy and diet. The breadfruit tree, which can produce a large amount of food with minimal maintenance, was a symbol of abundance and was often associated with Tu in prayers and rituals aimed at ensuring a bountiful harvest.
Rongo, another of Tangaroa’s sons, is the god of rain and agriculture. In a society dependent on subsistence farming, Rongo’s favor was essential for survival. The Mangarevans developed intricate irrigation systems to manage their water resources, and Rongo was invoked to bring the necessary rains. His worship often involved offerings of the first fruits of the harvest, a practice that reinforced the reciprocal relationship between the people and their gods.
Connection to Mangarevan Society: The myths surrounding Tangaroa’s descendants were not just religious stories but practical guides for living in harmony with nature. The rituals associated with these gods helped to regulate the use of natural resources, ensuring that they were used sustainably. For example, fishing expeditions were often preceded by ceremonies in Tangaroa’s honor, where only certain individuals were allowed to participate, reflecting the social stratification of Mangarevan society.
Maui
Maui-matavaru (Maui-the-Eighth): Maui is a central figure in Polynesian mythology, known for his trickster nature and heroic deeds. In Mangareva, Maui is celebrated for his cunning and resourcefulness. His birth from his mother’s navel is a symbol of his extraordinary origins, marking him as a figure of both divine and human qualities.
Maui’s magic staff and hatchet, given to him by his grandfather, are emblematic of his role as a culture hero. These tools allowed him to perform miraculous feats, such as fishing up islands from the sea or capturing the sun. These stories reflect the Mangarevan belief in the power of ingenuity and the importance of maintaining a balance between human ambition and respect for the natural world.
Comparison with Other Polynesian Maui Myths: Maui’s adventures in Mangareva share many similarities with his tales in other Polynesian cultures. For instance, the story of Maui slowing the sun to lengthen the day is found across Polynesia, symbolizing the struggle to control time and the elements. In Mangareva, this story is particularly relevant, as the island’s isolation meant that the sun’s movements played a significant role in the daily lives of the people, influencing everything from agricultural cycles to religious rituals.
Tiki and Hina-one
Creation of Woman: The myth of Tiki creating Hina-one from the earth emphasizes the critical role of women in Mangarevan society. The symbolism of Hina-one’s creation from the soil reflects the deep connection between the people and their land, where the earth is seen as the ultimate source of life and sustenance. In this narrative, Tiki’s actions are not just a simple act of creation but a divine intervention that brings balance and continuity to the world. Hina-one, as the first woman, embodies fertility, nurturing, and the perpetuation of life, making her a central figure in both the physical and spiritual well-being of the society.
Moreover, the process of creating Hina-one from the earth may have been mirrored in Mangarevan agricultural practices. For example, the islanders’ cultivation of taro, a staple crop, involved careful attention to the soil and the cycles of planting and harvest, which were often guided by rituals honoring the earth’s fertility. This connection between mythology and daily life underscores the importance of the land and women as life-givers in Mangarevan culture.
Incestuous Relationship and its Symbolism: The incestuous relationship between Tiki and his daughter, Hina-one, carries significant symbolic weight in Mangarevan mythology. Incest in Polynesian mythology often represents the crossing of boundaries and the disruption of natural and social orders. Tiki’s deception and subsequent relationship with Hina-one may serve as a cautionary tale about the dangers of violating societal taboos and the consequences that can arise from such actions.
In Mangareva, where social structure and hierarchy were crucial to maintaining order, myths like this would have reinforced the importance of adhering to cultural norms. The story likely served as a moral lesson, emphasizing the need for respect, honesty, and the maintenance of social boundaries. The repercussions faced by Tiki in the myth could have been reflected in real-life punishments or ostracism for those who violated similar taboos within the community.
Religious Practices and Worship
Temple Structures and Practices
Temples in Mangareva and Temoe: The religious life of Mangareva was centered around temples known as marae, which were open-air structures where the islanders conducted rituals, ceremonies, and offerings to the gods. These marae were often constructed using large stones, coral, and wooden carvings, and they were strategically located near important natural features like the coast, freshwater springs, or groves of sacred trees.
The marae at Temoe, a nearby atoll, are among the best-preserved examples of these sacred sites. Archaeological studies have revealed that these marae were used for a variety of purposes, including rites of passage, seasonal ceremonies, and the veneration of ancestors. The architecture of the marae, with its raised platforms and stone alignments, reflects the importance of elevation and space in Mangarevan religious thought, symbolizing the connection between the physical and spiritual worlds.
The destruction of many marae following the arrival of European missionaries in the 19th century marked a significant loss of cultural heritage. The dismantling of these structures, along with the suppression of traditional religious practices, led to a profound cultural shift as the islanders were forced to abandon their ancient ways in favor of Christianity. However, the remnants of these temples continue to be important archaeological and cultural sites, offering insights into the island’s pre-Christian religious life.
Conversion to Christianity: The conversion of Mangareva to Christianity was a swift and comprehensive process, largely driven by the arrival of French-Catholic missionaries in the early 19th century. By the 1830s, almost all of the island’s inhabitants had been baptized, and the traditional religious structures and practices were rapidly dismantled. This conversion was part of a broader trend across Polynesia, where indigenous religions were systematically replaced by Christianity.
The Christianization of Mangareva led to the abandonment of many traditional beliefs and the destruction of physical symbols of the old religion, such as marae and sacred images. The new religion brought with it new social norms and practices, including the establishment of schools, churches, and new forms of governance. The missionaries’ efforts to erase the island’s pagan past were largely successful, but they also inadvertently preserved some aspects of Mangarevan mythology by recording them in writing, often with the intention of highlighting the supposed superiority of Christian teachings.
Deified Ancestors
Role in Society: The worship of deified ancestors was a cornerstone of Mangarevan religion, reflecting the hierarchical and kinship-based nature of the society. Ancestors were believed to play an active role in the lives of the living, offering protection, guidance, and blessings. Each family or clan had its own set of deified ancestors, who were venerated through rituals that often took place at the family marae.
These ancestors were not just passive figures but were seen as powerful intermediaries between the gods and the living. Their continued favor was essential for the well-being of the family, and neglecting ancestor worship could result in misfortune or illness. The rituals associated with ancestor worship included offerings of food, drink, and sometimes even human sacrifices, particularly in times of crisis or important transitions, such as the installation of a new chief.
The central role of ancestors in Mangarevan religion also reinforced the importance of genealogy and lineage, which were key aspects of social identity. Chiefs and other leaders often claimed descent from the gods through their ancestors, legitimizing their authority and reinforcing the social hierarchy.
The Disappearance of Temples: The Christianization of Mangareva led to the widespread destruction of temples and the cessation of traditional ancestor worship. Many of the old marae were dismantled, and their stones were repurposed for the construction of churches and other Christian structures. This physical erasure of the past was accompanied by a cultural erasure, as the teachings of the new religion emphasized the rejection of old beliefs and practices.
Despite this, some elements of ancestor worship persisted in syncretized forms, often hidden within Christian practices. For example, the veneration of saints in the Catholic Church provided a socially acceptable outlet for the continued reverence of ancestors, albeit in a transformed and Christianized context. The shift from traditional ancestor worship to Christian practices illustrates the complex process of cultural change and adaptation that occurred in Mangareva during the 19th century.
Oral Tradition and the Preservation of Myths
The Role of Oral Tradition
Pou-kapa and Song Leaders: In the absence of written language, oral tradition was the primary means of preserving and transmitting Mangarevan myths and histories. The role of the pou-kapa, or song leaders, was crucial in this process. These individuals were highly respected members of society, often belonging to the chiefly class, who were responsible for memorizing and reciting the genealogies, chants, and stories that constituted the island’s oral literature.
The training of a pou-kapa was rigorous, involving years of memorization and practice. The accuracy of their recitations was paramount, as these oral texts were not only religious and cultural narratives but also served as records of history and law. The performance of these chants and stories was often accompanied by music and dance, adding layers of meaning and emotion to the words. These performances took place during important ceremonies, such as the installation of a chief, religious festivals, or major life events like weddings and funerals.
The decline of the pou-kapa tradition with the advent of Christianity represents a significant cultural loss. However, the stories and chants that were preserved by these leaders before the Christianization of the island provide invaluable insights into the pre-contact culture of Mangareva.
Laval’s Recordings: Father Honoré Laval, a French Catholic missionary who arrived in Mangareva in the early 19th century, played a pivotal role in documenting the island’s mythology. Recognizing the richness of Mangarevan oral traditions, Laval encouraged the native priests and chiefs to write down their myths, which he then translated into French. These records are among the few surviving documents that detail the island’s pre-Christian religious beliefs and practices.
Laval’s recordings provide a window into the spiritual world of the Mangarevans before the widespread adoption of Christianity. They include detailed accounts of creation myths, genealogies of gods and chiefs, and descriptions of rituals and ceremonies. While Laval’s work was motivated by a desire to contrast the “superstitions” of the islanders with the teachings of Christianity, his documentation has become an invaluable resource for understanding Mangarevan culture and mythology.
Influence of Christianity
The systematic destruction of temples and sacred images following the conversion to Christianity was a deliberate attempt to eradicate the old religion. Missionaries saw the traditional beliefs as obstacles to the acceptance of Christianity and actively sought to remove any physical reminders of the pagan past. This included the dismantling of marae, the destruction of carved images of gods, and the prohibition of traditional rituals and festivals.
The loss of these physical and cultural artifacts represents a significant disruption in the transmission of Mangarevan mythology. The destruction of temples, in particular, removed the sacred spaces where rituals were performed and where the myths and stories of the gods were kept alive. This physical erasure was accompanied by a cultural shift, as the islanders were encouraged to adopt Christian practices and beliefs.
Despite the concerted efforts to eliminate the old religion, some aspects of Mangarevan mythology have survived, albeit in altered forms. The process of syncretism, where elements of the old religion were incorporated into the new Christian framework, allowed for the preservation of certain myths and traditions. For example, the stories of gods and ancestors were sometimes reinterpreted as tales of saints or as allegories for Christian virtues.
