Mapuche mythology is an intricate tapestry of beliefs and traditions that has played a crucial role in shaping the cultural identity of the Mapuche people, an indigenous group from southern Chile and Argentina. With a population of approximately 1.5 million in Chile and 200,000 in Argentina, the Mapuche are one of the largest indigenous groups in South America. This American mythology, which has been passed down through generations, offers profound insights into their worldview, especially their relationship with nature and the cosmos. In a world increasingly disconnected from traditional roots, Mapuche mythology provides valuable lessons on how humans can live in harmony with their environment, preserving the delicate balance between nature and humanity.
The Cosmovision of the Mapuche
Concept of Ngen and the Spirit World
At the heart of Mapuche mythology lies the concept of Ngen, a class of powerful spirits that govern the elements of nature. The term “Ngen” translates to “owner” or “master,” reflecting the belief that these spirits have dominion over specific aspects of the natural world, such as water (Ngen Ko), forests (Ngen Mawida), and animals (Ngen Kürüf). Each element or natural feature is believed to be inhabited by a Ngen, who must be respected and appeased to maintain harmony. This belief underscores the Mapuche’s deep respect for the environment, which is seen as a living entity with its own consciousness and will.
For example, when constructing a new home or clearing land for agriculture, Mapuche families traditionally perform rituals to seek permission from the Ngen spirits. These rituals often involve offerings of food, drink, and tobacco, as well as prayers led by a Machi, the community’s shaman. The rituals are not merely symbolic; they reflect a genuine belief in the presence and power of these spirits. The Mapuche worldview, in this sense, is profoundly animistic, recognizing the sacredness of all natural elements.
The Creation Myth
The Mapuche creation myth is a cornerstone of their cultural heritage, providing a narrative framework for understanding the origins of the Earth and its inhabitants. According to this myth, the Earth was created through the struggles and interactions between good and bad spirits, with the Ngen spirits playing a crucial role in shaping the physical world. The bodies of defeated spirits were transformed into mountains and volcanoes, which are prominent features of the Mapuche homeland in the Andes.
This creation story is closely tied to the geographical realities of the region, which is characterized by rugged mountain ranges, active volcanoes, and frequent seismic activity. The Villarrica Volcano, for instance, one of Chile’s most active and iconic volcanoes, is seen as the embodiment of Pillán, a powerful deity associated with fire and destruction. The creation myth not only explains the natural landscape but also reinforces the Mapuche’s reverence for these natural features, which are seen as the physical manifestations of spiritual forces.
The creation myth also introduces the concept of duality, a recurring theme in Mapuche mythology. The struggle between good and bad spirits represents the constant tension between opposing forces—creation and destruction, order and chaos—that is seen as essential for maintaining balance in the world. This duality is not merely a philosophical concept but is deeply embedded in the Mapuche’s everyday practices and beliefs.
Major Deities and Spirits
Pillán: The Volcano God
Pillán is one of the most significant and feared deities in Mapuche mythology. He is associated with fire, thunder, and volcanic eruptions, embodying the destructive power of nature. The Villarrica Volcano, located in southern Chile, is considered to be his earthly manifestation. This volcano is one of the most active in South America, with over 50 recorded eruptions since the 16th century. The Mapuche believe that these eruptions are a sign of Pillán’s anger and that they must perform rituals to appease him and prevent further destruction.
In addition to volcanic activity, Pillán is also believed to control thunderstorms and other weather-related phenomena. The Mapuche have traditionally interpreted lightning strikes and thunderstorms as signs of Pillán’s presence, often taking them as warnings or omens. In response, the Mapuche would conduct rituals and offer sacrifices to Pillán to calm his fury. These practices highlight the deep connection between the Mapuche’s spiritual beliefs and their natural environment, where the forces of nature are seen as direct expressions of divine will.
Trentren Vilu and Caicai Vilu
The legend of Trentren Vilu and Caicai Vilu is one of the most famous and enduring stories in Mapuche mythology. Trentren Vilu, the god of the earth, and Caicai Vilu, the god of the sea, are depicted as giant serpents engaged in a cosmic battle for control over the land. This battle, according to the myth, caused massive floods and earthquakes, leading to the creation of the islands, lakes, and fjords that characterize the southern Chilean landscape.
The story of Trentren Vilu and Caicai Vilu is not merely a mythological tale; it is also a reflection of the Mapuche’s understanding of the natural forces that shape their environment. The southern regions of Chile and Argentina are prone to earthquakes, tsunamis, and other natural disasters, and the legend provides a way for the Mapuche to interpret and cope with these events. The story also emphasizes the importance of balance between the earth and the sea, mirroring the Mapuche’s broader belief in the need for harmony between opposing forces.
In modern times, the legend of Trentren Vilu and Caicai Vilu has been incorporated into Chilean cultural expressions, including literature, music, and visual arts. For instance, the story has inspired numerous works of art that depict the dramatic landscapes of southern Chile, often with the serpentine forms of Trentren and Caicai intertwined with the natural features of the land. This illustrates how Mapuche mythology continues to influence contemporary Chilean culture and identity.
Legendary Creatures and Figures
The Imbunche
The Imbunche is one of the most mysterious and feared creatures in Mapuche mythology. Described as a deformed human being with its head twisted backwards and its limbs contorted, the Imbunche is believed to be the result of dark magic practiced by sorcerers, known as Kalku. According to legend, a child is kidnapped by a Kalku and subjected to gruesome rituals that transform them into an Imbunche. This creature is then used as a guardian for the Kalku’s cave, ensuring that their dark secrets remain hidden from the outside world.
The Imbunche represents the dark side of Mapuche mythology, highlighting the dangers of straying from the path of righteousness and the potential for corruption within the human soul. The legend of the Imbunche has been popularized in modern literature and film, most notably in the works of Chilean author José Donoso, who used the figure as a metaphor for the twisted and repressive nature of society. The Imbunche serves as a powerful symbol of the consequences of evil deeds and the price of power gained through immoral means.
Kalku: The Sorcerers
Kalkus are sorcerers in Mapuche mythology who possess both healing and malevolent powers. They are often depicted as being in conflict with the Machi, using their abilities to harm others or gain power for themselves. The Kalku’s dual nature reflects the Mapuche belief in the balance of good and evil, where both forces are seen as necessary for maintaining harmony in the world.
Kalkus are believed to have the ability to control the weather, influence the outcome of battles, and cast spells that can bring misfortune or death. They are often associated with animals such as owls and snakes, which are seen as their familiars or messengers. In some cases, Kalkus are said to have the power to transform into these animals, further blurring the line between the human and spirit worlds.
The presence of Kalkus in Mapuche mythology serves as a warning against the misuse of power and the dangers of becoming too focused on personal gain. The Kalku’s actions are often contrasted with those of the Machi, who use their powers for the benefit of the community rather than for selfish purposes. This contrast underscores the importance of maintaining ethical and moral integrity in the face of temptation.
The Legend of the Copihue Flower
The copihue, or Chilean bellflower, is the national flower of Chile and holds a special place in Mapuche mythology. According to legend, the copihue was originally a white flower, where it bloomed in the forest. The legend says that the flower was stained red by the blood of a maiden named Copihue, who fell in love with a young warrior from a rival tribe. Forbidden from marrying, the two lovers met in secret. When they were discovered, the warrior was killed, and Copihue, in her grief, wept tears of blood that stained the white flower red. The flower, now known as the copihue, symbolizes love, sacrifice, and the deep connection between the Mapuche people and the natural world.
The copihue is not just a symbol in mythology; it plays an important role in the cultural identity of the Mapuche people. The flower is native to the temperate rainforests of southern Chile, where it thrives in the cool, shaded environments. The Mapuche traditionally used the copihue in various ceremonies, including as offerings to the Ngen spirits and in rituals conducted by Machis to ensure the fertility of the land. The copihue’s status as the national flower of Chile further underscores its significance, serving as a reminder of the enduring influence of Mapuche culture on the broader national identity.
Thematic Elements in Mapuche Mythology
Nature and Cataclysms
Nature is not just a backdrop in Mapuche mythology; it is a living, breathing entity that plays an active role in the stories and beliefs of the people. Many of the myths are centered around natural phenomena, such as earthquakes, floods, and volcanic eruptions, which are common in the region. For example, the legend of Pillán, the volcano god, provides a framework for understanding the frequent volcanic activity in southern Chile. The Mapuche believe that the eruptions of the Villarrica Volcano, which has erupted more than 50 times in recorded history, are manifestations of Pillán’s anger. This belief emphasizes the need for rituals and offerings to appease the deity and prevent further destruction.
Similarly, the legend of Trentren Vilu and Caicai Vilu offers an explanation for the frequent earthquakes and tsunamis that occur along the coast of southern Chile. The story of the battle between the earth and sea serpents mirrors the geological forces at work in the region, where the South American Plate meets the Nazca Plate, leading to significant seismic activity. These myths not only provide a way for the Mapuche to understand and cope with the natural disasters that shape their world but also highlight the importance of living in harmony with nature, recognizing its power and respecting its forces.
The Mapuche also have numerous myths related to the weather, particularly the strong winds and heavy rains that are common in southern Chile. For example, the Ngen Kürüf, the spirit of the wind, is believed to control the powerful gusts that sweep across the land. In times of extreme weather, the Mapuche would perform rituals to calm the Ngen Kürüf, ensuring that the winds do not cause damage to their homes and crops. These practices reflect the Mapuche’s deep understanding of the natural world and their belief in the interconnectedness of all things.
Dualism in Mapuche Beliefs
Dualism, the idea that the world is governed by opposing forces of good and evil, is a central theme in Mapuche mythology. This belief is reflected in the constant struggle between deities like Trentren Vilu and Caicai Vilu, as well as the conflict between Machis and Kalkus. The Mapuche see the world as a place of balance, where good and evil must coexist, and humans must strive to maintain harmony between these forces.
This dualism is not limited to the spiritual realm but extends to the physical world as well. For example, the Mapuche believe that every positive action has a corresponding negative reaction, and vice versa. This belief is reflected in their agricultural practices, where they seek to maintain a balance between planting and harvesting, ensuring that the land is not overworked and that it remains fertile for future generations. The concept of dualism also influences their social practices, where they emphasize the importance of maintaining harmony within the community and avoiding actions that could upset the balance of forces in the world.
The Mapuche’s belief in dualism is also evident in their approach to health and medicine. Traditional Mapuche medicine is based on the idea that illness is caused by an imbalance between the body and the spirit, and that healing involves restoring this balance. Machis, as healers, use a combination of herbal remedies, rituals, and spiritual guidance to treat illnesses, focusing on both the physical and spiritual aspects of the patient. This holistic approach to health reflects the Mapuche’s broader belief in the interconnectedness of all things and the need to maintain balance in all aspects of life.
The Role of the Machi (Shaman)
The Machi, or shaman, is one of the most important figures in Mapuche society, serving as a bridge between the human and spirit worlds. Machis are typically women, though men can also serve in this role, and they are chosen based on their ability to communicate with the spirits, particularly the Ngen. The selection of a Machi is often seen as a calling rather than a choice, with signs such as visions, dreams, or unexplained illnesses leading to the individual’s recognition as a shaman.
Machi play a vital role in maintaining the spiritual health of the community. They are responsible for performing rituals, healing the sick, and protecting the community from malevolent forces. These rituals often involve complex ceremonies that can last for several days, including singing, drumming, dancing, and the use of medicinal plants. The Machi’s connection to the spiritual world is believed to give them the power to cure diseases, ward off evil spirits, and ensure the fertility of the land.
In addition to their spiritual duties, Machis also play a significant social role within the Mapuche community. They are often involved in resolving conflicts, offering counsel, and maintaining social cohesion. The Machi’s influence extends beyond the spiritual realm, making them central figures in both the religious and social life of the Mapuche people.
Cultural Significance and Preservation
The Role of Oral Tradition
Oral tradition has been the primary means of preserving and transmitting Mapuche mythology for centuries. Storytelling is a central part of Mapuche culture, serving not only as a form of entertainment but also as a way to pass down knowledge, values, and beliefs from one generation to the next. The stories are often told by elders, who are respected as the keepers of cultural knowledge. These stories are more than just myths; they are a living record of the Mapuche’s history, identity, and worldview.
The oral tradition is particularly important in the context of the Mapuche’s historical resistance to external influences, including the Spanish colonization and the subsequent assimilation policies of the Chilean and Argentine governments. Despite these challenges, the Mapuche have managed to preserve their language, customs, and beliefs through the continued practice of oral storytelling. This resilience is a testament to the strength of their cultural identity and their commitment to preserving their heritage for future generations.
In recent years, there has been a growing effort to document and publish Mapuche myths and stories, both in their original language, Mapudungun, and in Spanish. These efforts are part of a broader movement to revitalize indigenous cultures and ensure that their knowledge is not lost in the face of modernization and globalization. However, there is also a recognition that the written word cannot fully capture the nuances and richness of the oral tradition, which is deeply embedded in the communal and performative aspects of storytelling.
Modern-Day Relevance
Mapuche mythology continues to play a significant role in the lives of the Mapuche people today, influencing their cultural practices, social structures, and interactions with the environment. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in Mapuche mythology, both within the Mapuche community and among the broader public in Chile and Argentina. This renewed interest is partly due to efforts to preserve and promote indigenous cultures, as well as a growing recognition of the importance of traditional ecological knowledge in addressing contemporary environmental challenges.
For example, the Mapuche’s belief in the sacredness of nature has been increasingly recognized in discussions about environmental conservation and sustainable development. Their traditional practices, such as rotational farming and the use of medicinal plants, are seen as valuable models for sustainable living that can offer solutions to the global environmental crisis. The Mapuche’s deep connection to their land, reflected in their mythology, has also led to legal and political efforts to protect their ancestral territories from exploitation and development.
The influence of Mapuche mythology can also be seen in contemporary Chilean culture, where it has been incorporated into literature, art, and education. Authors such as Isabel Allende and Pablo Neruda have drawn on Mapuche myths in their works, using these stories to explore themes of identity, resistance, and the connection between humans and nature. Similarly, Mapuche symbols and motifs have been adopted by Chilean artists and designers, reflecting a growing appreciation for indigenous culture in the national consciousness.
Mapuche mythology is a profound reflection of the Mapuche people’s relationship with nature, their spiritual beliefs, and their cultural values. It offers valuable insights into how humans can coexist with the environment and serves as a reminder of the importance of preserving cultural heritage. As the world faces global challenges such as climate change and environmental degradation, the lessons embedded in Mapuche mythology are more relevant than ever. By understanding and respecting these ancient beliefs, we can learn to live in greater harmony with the world around us and draw on the wisdom of indigenous cultures to build a more sustainable future.
The resilience of Mapuche mythology, despite centuries of external pressures, is a testament to the strength and vitality of the Mapuche culture. It is a living tradition that continues to inspire and guide the Mapuche people, offering a rich source of knowledge and wisdom for addressing the challenges of the modern world. As we seek to find solutions to global issues, the stories and beliefs of the Mapuche offer a valuable perspective on the importance of balance, harmony, and respect for the natural world.
