The Selk’nam, also referred to as the Ona, were an indigenous people who inhabited the remote and extreme environment of Tierra del Fuego, at the southernmost tip of South America. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Selk’nam settled in this region over 8,000 years ago, developing a unique culture adapted to the cold and windy climate. The population of the Selk’nam was estimated to be between 3,000 and 4,000 at the time of European contact in the late 19th century.
The arrival of Europeans, primarily sheep farmers and gold prospectors, in Tierra del Fuego led to a rapid decline in the Selk’nam population. By the early 20th century, the Selk’nam population had dwindled to fewer than 100 individuals due to massacres, forced relocations, and diseases brought by the settlers. The Selk’nam were also subject to systematic extermination campaigns, where bounties were paid for killing them, often as little as one British pound for a dead Selk’nam.
Despite the near destruction of their people, the mythology of the Selk’nam offers a rich and detailed insight into their world. It reflects their deep connection to the natural environment and their spiritual understanding of the cosmos. These myths served not only as religious texts but also as moral and social guidelines that governed everyday life.
The Creation Myth
At the heart of Selk’nam mythology is the figure of Kénos, the supreme being and creator of the universe. Kénos is said to have emerged from the primordial chaos that existed before the world was formed. He then descended to Tierra del Fuego, where he began to create the world by shaping the landscape, forming mountains, rivers, forests, and other natural features. For example, the myth describes how Kénos used his powerful breath to carve out valleys and his hands to pile up mountains.
Kénos also created the first living beings, which included both humans and spirits. The Selk’nam believed that each element of the natural world was overseen by a spirit or deity appointed by Kénos. For instance, Shoort, a spirit associated with the moon, was responsible for regulating the tides and ensuring the fertility of the land. Krren, another powerful spirit, was in charge of the winds that swept across Tierra del Fuego, shaping the landscape and influencing the daily lives of the Selk’nam.
One of the key themes in the Selk’nam creation myth is the division of the world into distinct realms. According to the myth, the earth was divided into regions governed by different spirits, each with its own specific role. The Selk’nam believed that these spirits were constantly at work, maintaining the balance of the natural world. For example, the spirit Tanu, associated with the forest, was responsible for the growth of trees and plants, ensuring that the Selk’nam had enough wood for their fires and shelter.
The creation myth also includes the story of the first humans and their initial interactions with the spirits. According to the myth, the first humans were created by Kénos from clay and were initially weak and defenseless. They were often at the mercy of the more powerful spirits, who controlled the forces of nature. However, over time, the humans learned to assert themselves and establish their place in the world. This narrative reflects the Selk’nam’s understanding of their own relationship with the natural world—a constant struggle for survival in a harsh and unforgiving environment.
The Hain Ceremony: Myth and Practice
One of the most important and elaborate rituals in Selk’nam culture was the Hain ceremony, a rite of passage that marked the transition of young men from adolescence to adulthood. The Hain ceremony was not only a social event but also a deeply spiritual experience, rooted in the myths and stories passed down through generations.
The Hain ceremony was held in a specially constructed lodge, called a Hain, where the participants would spend several months undergoing various tests and challenges. These challenges were designed to test their physical strength, mental endurance, and spiritual resolve. The young men were required to fast, endure physical pain, and face terrifying figures that represented ancestral spirits. These figures, known as klóketen, were portrayed by older men wearing elaborate body paint and masks. Each klóketen represented a different mythological being, and their appearance in the ceremony was a reenactment of ancient stories.
One of the most famous stories reenacted during the Hain is the tale of Hówens, the ancestral spirit who deceived the first women into believing that they were more powerful than men. According to the myth, the women used this belief to subjugate the men and force them into servitude. However, the men eventually discovered the truth and overthrew the women, reestablishing the natural order. The Hain ceremony served as a reminder of this story, reinforcing the traditional gender roles within Selk’nam society.
The ceremony also involved the use of symbolic elements, such as body paint and masks, which were carefully crafted to represent the different spirits and deities of Selk’nam mythology. The body paint, made from natural pigments like red ochre and white clay, was applied in intricate patterns that had specific meanings. For example, red paint symbolized life and vitality, while white paint represented death and the afterlife. The masks, made from bark, feathers, and animal skins, were designed to evoke the spirits they represented and were believed to hold spiritual power.
Shamanism and Spiritual Practices
Shamanism was a central aspect of Selk’nam spiritual life, with shamans, or xo’on, serving as the primary mediators between the human world and the spirit world. Shamans were believed to possess wáiuen, a supernatural power that allowed them to communicate with spirits, heal the sick, and influence natural events. The role of the shaman was highly respected within Selk’nam society, and becoming a shaman required years of training and spiritual preparation.
Shamans were often called upon to perform healing rituals, using a combination of herbal remedies, chants, and spiritual invocations to cure illnesses. The Selk’nam believed that many diseases were caused by malevolent spirits, and the shaman’s role was to drive these spirits away and restore the balance of the body. One example of a shamanic healing ritual involved the use of smoke and fire, which were believed to purify the body and drive out evil spirits. The shaman would burn aromatic plants, such as coirón grass, and use the smoke to cleanse the patient while chanting prayers to the spirits.
In addition to healing, shamans played a key role in controlling the weather, a vital task in the unpredictable climate of Tierra del Fuego. The Selk’nam believed that shamans could influence the spirits of the wind, rain, and snow, ensuring favorable conditions for hunting and gathering. For example, a shaman might perform a ritual to calm the Pali-Aike winds, which were known for their ferocity and could make hunting nearly impossible. The ritual would involve a combination of chants, offerings, and the use of sacred objects, such as wáiuen stones, which were believed to hold the power of the spirits.
Shamanic practices were deeply connected to the mythology of the Selk’nam, with many rituals based on stories of how the first shamans received their powers from the gods. One such myth tells of Kénos bestowing the first shaman with the ability to see into the spirit world and harness the power of the elements. This connection between shamanism and mythology reinforced the sacred nature of the shaman’s role and ensured that their practices were an integral part of Selk’nam life.
Mourning Rituals and Afterlife Beliefs
The Selk’nam had a complex set of mourning rituals that reflected their beliefs about death and the afterlife. These rituals were designed to honor the deceased and guide their soul, or kaspi, on its journey to the afterlife. The Selk’nam believed that the soul continued to exist after death and that it was important to ensure that it reached the afterlife safely.
When a person died, their body was painted with symbolic colors, usually red and white, to prepare them for the afterlife. The body was then placed in a shallow grave, facing east towards the rising sun, which symbolized the renewal of life. The grave was often marked with stones or branches, and the deceased’s personal belongings were buried with them to aid them in the afterlife.
The mourning period could last for several months, during which the deceased’s family and community would engage in various rituals to honor the dead. These rituals included self-laceration, where mourners would cut themselves with sharp stones as a sign of grief and respect. The wounds were then treated with ashes and herbs, which were believed to have healing properties.
Chanting and singing were also important parts of the mourning process. The Selk’nam had a rich tradition of funerary songs, which were sung to guide the soul on its journey and to communicate with the spirits of the ancestors. These songs were often passed down through generations and were considered sacred.
One of the most significant practices in Selk’nam mourning rituals was the avoidance of the deceased’s name. After a person died, their name was not spoken for several years, and their belongings were often destroyed or hidden to prevent their spirit from lingering in the world of the living. This practice was rooted in the belief that the soul could return to haunt or disturb the living if its name was invoked. The Selk’nam believed that the soul of the deceased, or kaspi, needed to be properly guided to the afterlife, or it could become a wandering spirit, trapped between worlds.
The Selk’nam envisioned the afterlife as a journey to a distant land where the soul would reunite with its ancestors and continue to exist in a new, more ethereal form. This afterlife was overseen by Téemáukel, the supreme being, who would judge the soul’s actions during its life. Souls that had lived in accordance with the moral and social codes of the Selk’nam were believed to enter a state of eternal peace, while those who had violated these codes faced a more turbulent afterlife.
The fear of disturbing the deceased’s soul also extended to the transformation of landscapes. In some cases, entire families would abandon their huts and move to a new location after the death of a family member, leaving behind the place where the person had lived and died. This act of relocation was seen as a way to avoid the potential return of the deceased’s spirit, ensuring that the living could continue their lives without fear of supernatural retribution.
Mourning was a communal activity, reflecting the collective nature of Selk’nam society. The entire community would participate in mourning rituals, often with elaborate displays of grief and remembrance. Chants and laments were performed by groups of mourners, and these songs were passed down through generations, preserving the memory of the deceased within the collective consciousness of the tribe.
The Decline and Preservation of Selk’nam Mythology
The arrival of European settlers in Tierra del Fuego in the late 19th century had a devastating impact on the Selk’nam people. The settlers, driven by economic interests such as sheep farming and gold mining, saw the indigenous population as obstacles to their ambitions. As a result, the Selk’nam were subjected to systematic extermination campaigns, known as the Selk’nam Genocide. These campaigns, which were often supported by the Argentine and Chilean governments, led to the murder of thousands of Selk’nam. Hunters were paid bounties for killing Selk’nam, and entire communities were wiped out within a few decades.
By the early 20th century, the Selk’nam population had dwindled to fewer than 100 individuals, and with this drastic decline, much of their cultural knowledge, including their mythology, was at risk of being lost. The surviving Selk’nam were often forced into missionary settlements, where they were pressured to abandon their traditional beliefs and adopt Christianity. This cultural suppression further eroded the transmission of Selk’nam myths and rituals.
Despite these challenges, efforts to preserve Selk’nam mythology began in the early 20th century, largely through the work of anthropologists and ethnographers. One of the most notable figures in this effort was Anne Chapman, a French-American ethnologist who spent decades studying the Selk’nam and other indigenous groups in Tierra del Fuego. Chapman worked closely with the last surviving Selk’nam elders to record their myths, rituals, and social practices. Her work culminated in several important publications, including “The Selk’nam: A Disappearing World,” which provided a comprehensive account of Selk’nam culture and mythology.
Another significant figure in the preservation of Selk’nam mythology was Martin Gusinde, a German priest and anthropologist who conducted extensive fieldwork among the Selk’nam in the early 20th century. Gusinde’s research, which included detailed descriptions of the Hain ceremony and other key aspects of Selk’nam culture, has been invaluable in preserving the knowledge of this nearly extinct people. His work, along with that of other researchers, has helped ensure that this American mythology remains accessible to future generations.
Today, there are ongoing efforts to revive Selk’nam identity and bring greater awareness to their history and mythology. Cultural organizations and descendants of the Selk’nam are working to reclaim their heritage, with initiatives that include language revival programs, the creation of educational materials, and the establishment of museums and cultural centers dedicated to the Selk’nam. These efforts are part of a broader movement to recognize and honor the contributions of indigenous peoples in South America and to ensure that their stories continue to be told.
