The Zapotec civilization, which emerged around 500 BCE and flourished until the 16th century, is one of the oldest and most sophisticated cultures of Mesoamerica. Centered in the Valley of Oaxaca, the Zapotecs are renowned for their achievements in architecture, writing, and agriculture. Their society was built upon a complex and deeply spiritual worldview, with mythology at its core. The intricacies of Zapotec mythology reveal much about their understanding of the universe, their gods, and their daily lives. By delving into their myths, we uncover not only the beliefs of an ancient people but also the ways in which these beliefs continue to influence contemporary Oaxacan culture.
The Pantheon of Zapotec Gods
The Zapotec pantheon is vast, featuring a multitude of deities that governed various aspects of life and the natural world. Among the most revered gods was Cocijo, the rain god, whose name is derived from the Zapotec word for lightning. Cocijo was not just a deity of rain but also a figure associated with fertility, storms, and the cycles of nature. He was often depicted with a serpent and a jaguar, animals symbolizing the duality of life and death, creation and destruction. To appease Cocijo and ensure a good harvest, the Zapotecs performed rituals involving offerings of maize, incense, and sometimes even blood, as they believed that these offerings could influence the weather and, by extension, their agricultural success.
The maize god, Pitao Cozobi, was another central figure in Zapotec mythology. Maize was not only the staple food of the Zapotecs but also a symbol of life itself. The Zapotecs believed that humans were created from maize dough, a belief shared by other Mesoamerican cultures like the Maya. Pitao Cozobi was often depicted in art as a figure emerging from a maize plant, emphasizing his role as the sustainer of life. The importance of maize in Zapotec culture is evident from the fact that much of their economy and social structure was built around its cultivation. Archaeological evidence shows that maize was domesticated in the Oaxaca Valley as early as 5000 BCE, indicating the deep historical roots of this crop in Zapotec life.
In contrast to the life-giving gods, the Zapotecs also worshipped deities associated with death and the afterlife. Pitao Pezeelao, the god of the underworld, was one such figure. The Zapotecs believed that the dead embarked on a journey to the underworld, where Pitao Pezeelao presided. This belief was reflected in their burial practices, which included placing offerings such as food, pottery, and jewelry in tombs to aid the deceased in their journey. The elaborate tombs found in Zapotec archaeological sites like Monte Albán, which feature intricate carvings and paintings of deities, highlight the importance of the afterlife in Zapotec culture. The reverence for Pitao Pezeelao and the ancestors is also seen in the Zapotec tradition of the Xandú, or Day of the Dead, which continues to be celebrated in Oaxaca with rituals that honor the deceased.
The duality inherent in Zapotec theology is perhaps best exemplified by the figure of Cocijo, who embodies both the creative and destructive forces of nature. This concept of duality—where gods could be both benevolent and malevolent—was a cornerstone of Zapotec belief, reflecting their understanding of the world as a place of balance between opposing forces. This duality is also seen in other Zapotec deities, such as Xipe Tótec, who was associated with agriculture and renewal but also with war and sacrifice, illustrating the complex and multifaceted nature of Zapotec gods.
Cosmology and the Zapotec Worldview
The Zapotecs believed in a three-tiered cosmology, which included the earth, the sky, and the underworld. Each of these realms was inhabited by different gods and spirits, and they were interconnected through various rituals and ceremonies. The earth was the domain of humans and agriculture, where the Zapotecs lived and cultivated maize. The sky was home to celestial beings, including the sun and moon gods, who governed the passage of time and the cycles of the seasons. The underworld, ruled by Pitao Pezeelao, was the final resting place of the dead and a source of ancestral power.
This cosmological framework was closely linked to the Zapotecs’ understanding of time, which was organized through two primary calendars: the Yza calendar and the Piye calendar. The Yza calendar was a 365-day solar calendar, used primarily for agricultural purposes. It was divided into 18 months of 20 days each, with an additional 5 “empty” days at the end of the year, considered a dangerous time when the barriers between the realms were thin. The Piye calendar, on the other hand, was a 260-day ritual calendar, used for religious ceremonies and the naming of newborns. The synchronization of these two calendars created a 52-year cycle, known as the Zapotec century, after which the calendars would realign. This cycle was a significant period in Zapotec life, often marked by large-scale rituals and ceremonies to ensure the continued favor of the gods.
Ancestor worship was another crucial aspect of Zapotec cosmology. The Zapotecs believed that their ancestors had the power to influence the living, and they maintained close ties with the dead through rituals and offerings. This is evident in their burial practices, which included placing the deceased in tombs with offerings of food, pottery, and jewelry to ensure their comfort in the afterlife. The tombs themselves were often elaborately decorated with carvings and paintings of deities, indicating the high status of the deceased and the importance of maintaining a connection with the ancestors.
Mythological Narratives
Zapotec mythology is rich with creation myths and legends that explain the origins of the world, humanity, and the natural order. One of the central myths recounts the creation of the Zapotec people, who were believed to have emerged from sacred caves, particularly from the mountains known as Cerro del Borrego or Cerro de las Flechas. These caves were seen as the wombs of the earth, and the Zapotecs believed that the first humans were born from them, signifying their divine origin. This myth is closely tied to the Zapotecs’ connection to the land, as they saw themselves as the true children of Oaxaca, with a unique bond to its mountains and valleys.
Another significant myth is the legend of the Sun and the Moon, which explains the origins of these celestial bodies. According to the story, the Sun and the Moon were originally sibling gods. The older brother, the Sun, was strong and brave, while the younger brother, the Moon, was weaker. However, in a test of strength, it was the Moon who proved superior, leading to the eternal cycle where the Sun sets each night to make way for the Moon. This myth reflects the Zapotecs’ understanding of cosmic balance and the cyclical nature of time.
Rituals were an essential aspect of Zapotec religious life, and many were directly linked to these myths. Sacrifices, often of animals like turkeys or dogs, were made to gods like Cocijo to ensure rain and fertility. These rituals were performed by priests, who played a central role in Zapotec society as intermediaries between the gods and the people. The rituals were often held at important agricultural times, such as the planting and harvest seasons, and were accompanied by feasting, dancing, and the playing of music.
Artistic and Cultural Expressions
Zapotec mythology is vividly captured in their artistic and cultural expressions, particularly in the form of codices and glyphs. These were intricate records inscribed on deerskin, shells, and pottery, detailing the gods, religious rituals, and myths. The Mitla murals, located in one of the most sacred Zapotec sites, are prime examples of how art was used to depict cosmological concepts and divine beings. These murals, adorned with intricate geometric patterns and depictions of gods, served as both religious and cultural symbols.
The influence of Zapotec mythology extends into contemporary Oaxacan culture, where it continues to inspire literature, visual art, and performances. Artists reinterpret ancient themes, such as the duality of the gods or the connection between humans and nature, to explore modern issues of identity and cultural heritage. This ongoing engagement with this American mythology ensures that these ancient stories remain a living tradition.
Religious Practices and Festivals
Zapotec religious practices were deeply intertwined with their mythology, and many of these traditions continue to be celebrated in modern Oaxaca. One of the most significant festivals is the Guelaguetza, which originally celebrated the Zapotec’s religious and communal values. Today, it is a vibrant cultural event that brings together communities from across Oaxaca to perform traditional dances, songs, and rituals, echoing the cooperative spirit of its origins.
Another important tradition is Xandhu, the Day of the Dead celebration unique to the Zapotecs. Beginning on October 22, families pray and prepare for the return of their ancestors’ spirits, who are believed to visit on November 1. This tradition reflects the ancient Zapotec belief in the ongoing relationship between the living and the dead, highlighting the importance of ancestors in their spiritual life.
The Dance of the Feather is another cultural expression rooted in Zapotec mythology. This dance narrates the events of the Spanish conquest from a Zapotec perspective, blending indigenous and European elements into a powerful symbol of cultural resilience. It is often performed during the Guelaguetza, serving as a reminder of the enduring impact of Zapotec culture.
Zapotec mythology is not merely a collection of ancient stories and beliefs; it is a profound reflection of the values, fears, aspirations, and understanding of the world held by the Zapotec people. Their rich pantheon of gods, intricate cosmology, and deeply ingrained rituals illustrate how the Zapotecs sought to explain the mysteries of life, death, and the natural world. These myths and religious practices were not isolated from everyday life but were integral to the Zapotecs’ agricultural activities, social structure, and even their interactions with neighboring cultures.
The complexity and depth of Zapotec mythology also highlight the civilization’s intellectual and spiritual sophistication. Their belief in duality, the interconnectedness of the cosmos, and the power of their ancestors demonstrates a worldview that was both holistic and cyclical. This understanding influenced every aspect of their existence, from their political systems to their artistic expressions.
Today, the legacy of Zapotec mythology continues to thrive in Oaxaca, where it remains a living tradition. Through festivals like Guelaguetza, rituals like the Day of the Dead, and artistic endeavors that draw on ancient themes, the people of Oaxaca keep the spirit of their Zapotec ancestors alive. These modern interpretations and practices ensure that Zapotec mythology is not just a relic of the past but an evolving cultural force that continues to shape contemporary identities.
As scholars and enthusiasts continue to study and celebrate Zapotec mythology, it becomes increasingly clear that these stories offer more than just a window into an ancient civilization. They provide timeless lessons about humanity’s relationship with nature, the divine, and each other. By preserving and honoring these traditions, we not only pay homage to the Zapotecs’ remarkable heritage but also enrich our own understanding of the diverse tapestry of human belief and culture.
